UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


/ 


A  UNIT  IN  AGEICULTURE 


AN    OUTLINE    COURSE    OF    STUDY    AND    STUDENT'S 

LABORATORY  MANUAL,   FOR   TEACHERS  AND 

STUDENTS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 

JOSEPH  DOLIVER  JELLIFF 

Inspector  of  Schools  and  Professor  of  High  School   Administration 
University  of  Missouri 


CHICAGO 
ROW,  PETERSON  &  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1011 

BY 
JOSEPH  DOLIVEB  ELLIFP 


•V; 


INTRODUCTION. 

"The  most  significant  fact  in  the  educational  world  to-day  is  the 
demand  that  agriculture  be  taught  in  the  public  schools.  *  *  *  I 
do  not  believe  in  that  philosophy  of  education  which  would  establish 
separate  schools  for  the  various  industries  and  occupations  of  life."  : 
If  we  accept  these  statements,  the  conclusion  is  obvious:  we  should 
teach  agriculture  in  existing  high  schools  and  we  should  do  it  now. 

We  should  teach  this  subject  in  existing  schools  because: 

1.  We  are  not  ready  to  establish  separate  industrial  or  trade 
schools  in  this  country.     Such  schools,  if  maintained  at  state  expense, 
smack  of  European  conditions  and  class  distinctions. 

2.  We  could  not  meet  the  expense  of  a  dual  system  of  secondary 
schools,  even  if  we  were  willing  to  do  so.     Most  districts  find  some 
difficulty  in  providing  adequately  for  existing  schools.    To  divide  our 
energies  and  resources  between  two  systems  of  high  schools,  would 
mean  the  ultimate  failure  of  both. 

3.  The  existing  high  schools  can  easily  be  made  to  fill  the  de- 
mand.   When  agriculture  is  put  on  an  equal  footing  with  other  sub- 
jects, when  teachers  are  employed  who  know  and  can  teach  the  sub- 
ject, and  when  they  are  given  time  and  equipment  to  teach  it,  the 
problem  will  be  solved. 

4.  Measured  by  any  standards  of  educational  aims  and  educa- 
tional values,   courses   in   agriculture   will   compare   favorably  with 
other  courses  taught. 

We  should  introduce  this  subject  immediately,  for  the  very  excel- 
lent reason  that  the  demand  must  and  will  be  met.    Some  states  have 


*  From  an  address  by  !>%n  E.  Davenport,  College  of  Agriculture,  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois. 

3 


ISTIionUCTlON 


already  waited  too  long  and  as  a  result  now  face  the  problem  of  a 
dual  system  of  high  schools.  Certainly  no  greater  misfortune  than 
this  could  befall  the  public  schools  of  any  state. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  growing  demand  of  our  people  that  the 
prhools  be  brought  into  closer  relationship  with  the  life  of  today; 
that  the  courses  of  study  take  into  account,  in  some  measure  at  least, 
tlir  dominant  interests  of  the  community;  that,  among  other  stand- 
ards of  selection,  we  give  some  attention  to  the  immediate  interests 
and  future  prospects  of  our  pupils;  is  not  only  fair  and  just,  but  is 
eminently  sound  pedagogy.  If  so,  then  the  immediate  problem  con- 
fronting all  of  us  who  are  interested  in  secondary  education  is,  how 
to  organize  this  course,  how  to  fit  it  into  the  curriculum  and  how 
to  teach  it  so  as  to  secure  its  maximum  educational  value  to  our 
pupils.  It  is  in  the  hope  that  I  may  contribute  something  to  the 
solution  of  this  problem,  that  this  book  is  written. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  book  many  sources  of  information  have 
been  drawn  upon,  but  the  plan  is  original.  I  am  especially  indebted 
to  Dean  F.  B.  Mumford,  Professor  J.  C.  Whitten  and  Mr.  C.  B. 
Hutchison,  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  for  valuable  suggestions 
and  corrections;  and  to  Professor  J.  H.  Coursault,  of  the  School  of 
Education,  for  reading  the  proof.  J.  D.  ELLIFF. 

July  1,  1911. 


PURPOSE  AND  PLAN. 

The  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  high  schools  is  beset  with 
many  difficulties,  among  which  are  the  following: 

1.  Scarcity  of  trained  teachers. 

2.  But  few  good  high  school  texts. 

3.  A  frequent  misconception  of  the  purpose  and  value  of  the 
course  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  parents. 

4.  Confusion  of  pupils  and  teachers  due  to  the  wide  variety  of 
suitable  topics  that  may  be   studied   and   the  great   abundance   of 
illustrative  material. 

5.  The  still  too  common  notion  that  agriculture  is  essentially  a 
book  study  which  can  be  taught  independently  of  laboratory  and 
field. 

f>.     Lack  of  definite  form  and  content  of  the  course. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  obviate  some  of  these  difficulties  by: 

1.  Planning  a  course  that  any  wide  awake,  progressive  teacher 
who  has  had  any  scientific  training  can  teach  successfully. 

2.  Referring  throughout  to  the  best  standard  authors  in  order 
to  give  the  student   a  broader   and   clearer   view  than   is   possible 
where  only  one  book  is  used. 

,  3.  Securing  the  cooperation  of  parents  by  bringing  them  into 
direct  contact  with  the  work  of  the  pupils  in  the  home  garden  and 
field. 

4.  Making  the  best  possible  use  of  illustrative  material  in  the 
laboratory,  garden,  and  field,  in  order  to  give  the  students  an  oppor- 
tunity  to    observe    and    study   the    fundamental    processes    at    first 
hand. 

5.  Confining  the  work  to  a  comparatively  few  essential  topics 
and  providing  a  definite  amount  of  laboratory  work  on  each. 

The  bulletin  consists  of  two  parts.     Part  I  is  for  the  use  of  the 
teacher  and  contains : 

1.  Suggestions  concerning  equipment. 

2.  General  suggestions. 

3.  Outline  course  with  lists  of  readings. 
Part  II  is  a  pupils'  laboratory  manual, 

5 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

PART  I. 
I.     SUGGESTIONS  CONCERNING  EQUIPMENT. 

A.      Material  to  Be  Collected  by  Teacher  and  Students  at  the  Beginning  of 

the  Year. 

1  bushel  clean  sand. 

1  bushel  sandy  loam  soil. 

1  bushel  clay. 

8  quarts  leaf  mold  (well  rotted). 

1  bushel  rich  soil  for  use  in  growing  house  plants. 

Samples  of  commercial  fertilizer,  with  analysis  and  prices  given. 

Collection  of  economic  seeds. 

(These  may  be  secured  free  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
In  ordering  this  collection,  address  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Seed 
Laboratory,  "Washington,  D.  C.  When  you  order;  send  $1.50  to 
Mackall  Bros.,  9th  and  H  Streets,  N.  E.,  Washington,  D.  C.  This 
is  to  pay  for  the  tray  and  vials  used  in  packing  the  collection. 
Notify  the  Department  that  you  have  sent  the  money  to  pay  for  tray 
and  vials.) 

Collections  of  economic  seeds  prepared  by  teacher  and  students. 

1.  Seeds  of  the  following  trees:   oak,  walnut,   hickory,   hazel, 
apple,  pear,  peach,  cherry,  plum,  etc. 

2.  Cereals:  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  rice,  etc. 

3.  Grasses  and  clovers:  red  clover,  alsike,  white  clover,  alfalfa, 
timothy,  millet,  orchard  grass,  blue  grass,  Johnson  grass,  Bermuda 
grass,  cowpeas,  redtop,  etc. 

4.  Common  weeds:  purslane,  morning  glory,  Jamestown  weed, 
cocklebur,  cheat,  ragweed,  horseweed,  etc. 

7 


8  A  UNIT  IN  AOSIOULTUBS 

B.  Apparatus  for  Soil  Studies. 

(Equipment  for  20  students.) 

1  pair  of  balances  weighing  to  grams  or  quarter  ounces.     (A 
four- pound  postal  scale  may  be  used.) 

•">  ^lass  tumblers. 

10  wide  mouthed  8-ounce  bottles. 
10  pint  glass  fruit  jars. 

5  thermometers. 
10  student  lamp  chimneys. 
10  shallow  pans. 

^2  lb.  glass  tubing  (small  sizes). 
*4  lb.  glass  rods  (small  sizes). 
Filter  paper. 
Litmus  paper. 
5  glass  or  tin  funnels. 
5  small  sieves  of  various  meshes. 
10  six-inch  flower  pots. 

C.  Material  for  Plant  Studies. 

(Equipment  for  20  students.) 

10  heavy  dinner  plates  for  seed  germination. 

10  panes  of  glass  (8x11  inches). 

10  small  microscopes. 

Quantity  of  heavy  cotton  cloth  for  use  in  seed  germination. 

10  shallow  wooden  boxes  (12x18x3  inches)  for  growing  cut- 
tings, etc. 

Apparatus  for  Babcock  milk  test  (cost  $5.00). 

If  possible,  not  less  than  one-half  acre  of  good  land  for  a  school 
garden  and  experiment  field.  (If  the  school  has  no  such  plot,  land 
from  a  nearby  farm  may  be  rented.) 

Apparatus  now  in  the  physical,  chemical,  or  biological  laboratory 
need  not  be  duplicated  for  agriculture.  Much  of  the  material  can 
be  made  by  the  students  or  brought  from  their  homes.  The  entire 
]ist  should  be  purchased  through  a  local  dealer  for  about  $18.00. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


D.      Text-Books. 

If  one  copy  of  each  of  the  following  four  books  is  purchased 
for  each  four  pupils  in  the  class,  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  the 
students  to  purchase  any  book.  This  plan  is  strongly  recommended. 
If  any  particular  text  is  used,  it  should  be  one  of  these: 

Elements  of  Agriculture,  Warren,   Macmillan  Co : $1.10 

Agriculture,  Jackson  &  Daugherty,  Orange  Judd  Co 1.50 

Agriculture,    Ferguson    &    Lewis,    Ferguson    Publishing    Co., 

Sherman,   Texas 1.00 

First  Book  of  Farming,  Goodrich,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co 1.00 

E.      Books  for  Special  Reference. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb,  Ginn  &  Co 2.00 

Physics  of  Agriculture,  King,  published  by  the  author,  Madi- 
son,  Wis 1.75 

Nursery  Book,  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co 1.50 

Experiments  with  Plants,  Osterliaut,  Macmillan  Co 1.25 

Soils,  Lyon  and  Pippin,  Macmillan  Co 1.75 

The  Soil,  King,  Macmillan  Co 1.50 

Progressive    Poultry    Culture,    Brigham,    Torch    Press,    Cedar 

Rapids,    Iowa 1.30 

From  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington: 

I  complete  set  Farmers'  Bulletins,  and  extra  copies,  one  for  each 
member  of  the  class,  of  Nos.  44,  123,  143,  154,  157,  187,  203, 
218,  229,  255  and  260. 

1  copy  of  list  of  bulletins  for  free  distribution. 

1  copy  of  list  of  publications  for  sale.  (Some  of  these  may  be 
obtained  through  the  congressman  of  the  district.) 

Year  Boeks,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circular  No.  59. 

U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  Circular  No.  34. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soil  Study,  Circulars  Nos.  13,  195. 

TJ.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Circular  No.  30. 

1  set  of  your  State  Agricultural  College  "Reports. 


W ,1  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal   Industry,  Bulletins  Nos.  37,  113. 

I5mv;m  ..f   l-Mucation   I'.ullH in  No.  2  (1907). 
Note. — Wlicrc  no  price  is  given  the  books  are  free. 

F.      Books  Very  Desirable,  but  Not  Absolutely  Essential. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  (four  volumes),  Bailey, 

Macmillan    Co $20.00 

(This  is  the  very  best  work  of  the  kind,  and  will  be  of 
much  value  to  patrons  as  well  as  to  students.) 

Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co 1.50 

Plant  Breeding,  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co 1.25 

Vegetable  Gardening,  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co 1.50 

The  Horse,  Roberts,  Macmillan  Co 1.25 

Fertilizers,  Voorhees,  Macmillan  Co 1.25 

Farm  Science,  International  Harvester  Co.  (free). 

Corn,  Bowman  &  Crossley,  published  by  the  authors,  Ames, 

Iowa 2.50 

Farm  Buildings,  Sanders  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago 2.00 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  Vivian,  Orange  Judd  Co 1.00 

Soils,  BurJcett,  Orange  Judd  Co 1.00 

G.      Each  School  Should  Subscribe  for  a  Few  Agricultural  Papers. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  11 


II.  GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

1.  The  teacher  should  have  a  definite  aim  and  plan  for  each 
lesson,  a  clear  notion  of  what  he  is  going  to  do,  the  sources  of  informa- 
tion and  the  material  to  he  used. 

2.  As  a  general  rule,  the  laboratory  and  field  work  should  pre- 
cede the  study  of  the  text.     The  following  order  is  strongly  recom- 
mended : 

a.  The   experiment,   field   or   laboratory.     Written    or   printed 

directions  for  the  work  should  be  given.  See  Part  II. 
Pupils  should  be  required  to  manipulate  carefully,  observe 
closely,  think  connectedly,  and  record  in  writing. 

b.  The  assigned  readings. 

c.  The  recitation.     Here  the  whole  topic  should  be  reviewed, 

put  in  correct  form  and  reduced  to  use.  An  opportunity 
to  show  the  bearing  and  use  of  the  lesson  on  the  home  life 
of  the  child  and  the  community  should  never  be  lost. 

4.  Each  student  should  keep  a  note  book  in  which  each  labora- 
tory and  field  exercise  and  each  demonstration  is  carefully  recorded 
in  good  English.     This  note  book  should  contain  the  date  and  sub- 
ject of  each  exercise,  a  statement  of  the  materials  used,  description 
of  the  work  done,  and  such  illustrative  drawings  as  may  be  necessary, 
In  preparing  an  index  to  his  note  book,  the  student  should  specify 
whether  the  work  is  a  laboratory  exercise,  a  field  exercise,  or  a  demon- 
stration made  by  the  teacher  or  by  another  student.    The  index  should 
bear  the  teacher's  endorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true  abstract 
of  the  student's  work. 

5.  The  course  is  planned  for  one  year.     At  least  two  double 
periods  per  week  should  be  given  to  individual  laboratory  or  field 
work.     It  is  expected  that  some  schools  will  do  more  work  than  is 
outlined  and  that  each  will  place  some  emphasis  upon  such  topics 


12  A  I'XIT  IX 


ire  of  sjH'i  i;il   interest    to  the  community   in   which   the  school  is 
locatd  1. 

6.  While  certain  substitutions  may  he  made  in  botli  library  and 
equipment,  the  lists  given  are  considered  minimum  lists  and  should 
be  provided. 

7.  The   course   as   planned   presupposes   no   previous   scientific 
training  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  may  be  placed  in  any  year 
of  the  high  school.     Students  having  had  one  or  more  sciences  will 
do  more  work  than  those  wlm  have  had  no  such  training.     If  physical 
geography  is  taught,  it  is  strongly  recommended   that  this  subject 
be  given  in  the  first  year  and  agriculture  in   the  second  year. 

8.  .1    beginning   xlnnild   be   made.     If   the   teacher  cannot   get 
everything  he  needs,  he  should  use  what  he  has  and  can  get.     Much 
good  work  can  be  done  with  only  such  equipment  as  teacher  and 
students  can  provide. 

9.  Remember    that   agriculture   cannot    be    taught   successfully 
from  a  book  alone.     To  attempt  to  do  so  when  there  is  such  an  abun- 
dance  and  variety  of  illustrative  material  is  an  unjustifiable  waste  of 
time.    The  pupil  should  not  study  about  soil  ;  he  should  study  soils. 

10.  The  required  readings  are  given  in  Part  I  rather  than  in 
Part  II  for  the  reason  that  the  teacher  should  carefully  guide  in  the 
work.     The  teacher  knows  best  what  reading  is  necessary  and  when 
it  is  necessary.     Each  of  the  text-books  gives  some  information  con- 
cerning most  of  the  lessons.     For  this  reason,  the  texts  are  not  given 
.in  the  lists  of  readings.    The  teacher  should  select  the  be'st  reference 
from  each  text. 

11.  The  teacher  will  find  it  necessary  to  exercise  careful  super- 
vision over  the  library.    If  possible,  a  separate  case  for  the  agricul- 
tural library  should  be  provided. 

12.  The  lesson  should  be  studied  by  the  teacher  in  advance  of 
the   assignment   of  class  work.     The   required    readings  should   be 
selected  and  placed  on  the  blackboard  as  necessary  from  time  to  time. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  13 

13.  The  teacher  should  not  be  satisfied  with  the  literature  given. 
He  will  doubtless  be  able  to  find  much  additional  that  is  as  good  or 
better. 

14.  If  possible  a  school  garden  in  which  each  student  has  his 
own  plot  of  ground  should  be  provided.     For  suggestions  concerning 
the  equipment  and  management  of  the  school  garden,  see  Farmers' 
Bulletins,  Nos.  94  and  218,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
Agricultural  Education,  James  A.  Jewell,  Bulletin  No.  2    (1907), 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.    The  school  garden  may  be 
made  the  most  interesting  and  profitable  part  of  the  work. 

15.  The  books  for  special  and  general  reference  should  be  kept 
by  the  teacher  or  librarian  and  should  be  taken  from  the  library  only 
by  permission  of  the  teacher.     Many  of  these  books  will  interest 
patrons.    With  these  books  as  a  basis,  an  agricultural  library  should 
be  built  up  for  the  use  of  all  the  people  in  the  community.     The 
high  school  should  be  made  a  social  and  agricultural  center  for  the 
community. 

16.  While  the  topics  may  be  studied  in  other  than  the  order 
named,  it  is  probable  that  the  order  given  is  best.     In  any  event, 
soil  study  should  precede  plant  study,  and  farm  management  should 
come  last. 

17.  It  is  believed  that  the  average  class  can  complete  the  course 
as  planned  and  do  all  the  work  well  in  one  year  of  nine  months. 

18.  If  at  any  time  suggestions  are  needed  all  the  assistance  pos- 
sible may  be  secured  by  addressing  your  State  Agricultural  College. 

19.  Problems  and  review  questions  may  be  selected  from  the 
excellent  lists  in  Warren's  text. 

20.  This  course  is  largely  a  compilation  of  what  seems  to  be 
the  best  features  of  several  courses.    It  is  at  best  only  tentative  and 
will  doubtless  need  revision.    To  this  end,  the  author  will  appreciate 
the  criticisms  and  suggestions  of  teachers  it. 


14 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

III.     OUTLINE  COURSE. 

A.     FARM  CROPS. 
I.     Com. 

1.  Study  of  a  grain  of  corn.     Ex.  1. 

2.  Study  of  an  ear  of  corn.     Ex.  2. 

3.  Study  of  complete  plant.     Ex.  3. 

4.  Study  of  the  three  principal  types  of  corn : 

(a)  Pop  corn. 

(b)  Dent  corn. 

(c)  Sweet  corn. 

5.  A  more  careful  study  of  the  six  important  varieties: 

(a)  Boonc  County  White. 

(b)  Reid's  Yellow  Dent. 

(c)  St.  Charles  White. 

(d)  Learning. 

(e)  St.  Charles  Yellow. 

(f)  Commercial  White. 

6.  Corn  judging,  use  of  score  card.    Exs.  4  and  5. 

7.  How  to  select  and  store  seed  corn. 

8.  Testing  seed  corn  for  germination.     Ex.  6. 

9.  Methods  of  cultivation. 

(a)  Relation  of  climate  to  corn  production. 

(b)  Preparation  of  soil  for  corn ;  fall  plowing,  spring  plow- 

ing, depth  of  plowing. 

(c)  Fitting  the  land  after  plowing. 

(d)  Planting:  time,  manner,  depth,  distance  apart,  num- 

ber of  grains  in  a  hill,  etc. 

(e)  Tillage:  tools,  frequency,  depth  of  tillage,  etc. 

(f)  Harvesting. 

10.  Simple  methods  of  corn  improvement. 

(a)  Ear  to  row  plot  in  field. 

11.  Enemies  of  corn  and  how  to  control  or  destroy  them. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  15 

12.     Corn  and  corn  products:  importance,  use  and  value. 
Literature. 

The  Nebraska  Corn  Book. 

Farm  Science,  pp.  21-39. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  199,  229,  253,  298,  303,  313. 

Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circular  No.  59. 

Office  of  Experiment  Station,  Circular  No.  34  (rev.). 

Year  Book,  Reprints  446  (1907),  488   (1908). 

Bowman  and  Crossley,  Corn. 

II.      Wheat. 

1.  Study  of  a  grain  of  wheat.     Ex.  7. 

2.  Study  of  a  head  of  wheat.     Ex.  8. 

3.  Study  of  a  complete  plant.     Ex.  9. 

4.  Principal  varieties. 

5.  Improving  of  wheat. 

(a)  Crossing. 

(b)  Selection  of  seed. 

(c)  Selection  of  individual  plants. 

6.  Methods  of  cultivation. 

(a)  Relation  of  climate  to  wheat  production. 

(b)  Plowing  for  wheat:  time,  depth. 

(c)  Preparation  of  ground  after  breaking. 

(d)  Sowing:  broadcast,  drill;  amount  of  seed  per  acre. 

7.  Harvesting  and  marketing  wheat. 

8.  Wheat  and  wheat  products:  importance  and  value. 

9.  Enemies  of  wheat  and  how  to  fight  them : 

(a)  Eust. 

(b)  Hessian  fly. 

(c)  Chinch  bug. 

(d)  Smut. 
Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  132,  250. 


16     A  UNIT  IX  AGRICULTURE 

r.mvau  nf  Soil,  Circular   No.    lii.V 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circular  No.  70. 

III.  Oat.. 

1.  Study  of  a  head  of  oats.     Ex.  10. 

2.  Principal  varieties. 

3.  Methods  of  cultivation. 

(a)  Preparation  of  seed  bed:  plowing  vs.  disking. 

(b)  Seeding:    drilling   vs.    broadcasting;    amount   of   seed 

per  acre. 

4.  Treating  oats  for  smut. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  250. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Circular  No.  30. 

IV.  Shipping,  Storing,  Testing,  Grading,  and  Marketing  Corn,  Wheat,  and 

Oat*. 

V.  The  Legumes. 

1.  Identification  and  description  of  alfalfa,  red  clover,  alsike, 
white  clover,  cow  peas,  soy  beans,  and  vetch.    Ex.  11. 

2.  Methods  of  cultivation,  character  of  soil,  preparation  of  seed 
bed,  inoculation  of  soil,  amount  of  seed  per  acre,  time  of  seasion  to 
sow,  methods  and  time  of  cutting  and  curing. 

3.  Use  and  value  of  each. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  58,  89,  121,  194,  278,  289,  315,  318,  339, 
372. 

VI.  The  Grasses. 

1.     Identification  and  description  of  blue  grass,  orchard  grass, 
timothy,  Bermuda  grass,  red  top  and  Johnson  grass. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  66,  312. 

VII.  Potatoes. 

1.     A  study  of  tin'  Irish  potato.     Ex.  12. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


2.  Effect  of  large  and  small  potatoes  on  yield. 

3.  Selection  of  seed  potatoes. 

4.  Principal  varieties. 

5.  Methods  of  cultivation. 

6.  Enemies  of  the  Irish  potato  and  how  to  fight  them:  scab, 

dry  rot,  potato  beetles. 

7.  Sweet  potatoes:  principal  varieties,  method  of  culture,  yield 

and  uses  as  compared  with  Irish  potatoes. 

8.  Improvement  of  potatoes. 

(a)   Selection  from  high  yielding  hills. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  35,  91,  295,  324. 

VIII.      Cotton. 

1.  Study  of  cotton  plant. 

2.  Principal  types  of  cotton : 

(a)  Sea  Island  type. 

(b)  Upland  type. 

3.  Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  favorable  to  the  production  of 

cotton. 

4.  Planting  and  cultivation  of  cotton. 

(a)  Preparation  of  soil. 

(b)  Planting. 

(c)  Cultivating. 

(d)  Harvesting. 

5.  Preparation  for  market. 

(a)  Ginning. 

(b)  Baling. 

6.  Cotton  seed  and  cotton-seed  products,  importance  and  use. 

7.  Insect  enemies  of  cotton  and  how  to  fight  them. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  36,  48,  209,  211,  285,  286,  302,  314,  344. 

fX.      Tobacco. 

1.     Study  of  complete  plant. 


18 A  UXIT  IX  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  favorable  to  the  production  of 

tobacco. 

3.  Principal  varieties. 

4.  Planting  and  cultivating  tobacco: 

(a)  Preparation  of  seed  bed. 

(b)  Time  and  manner  of  sowing  tbe  seed. 

(c)  Preparation  of  the  soil  for  crop. 

(d)  Transplanting. 

(e)  Cultivating. 

5.  Harvesting  tobacco. 

6.  Curing  and  preparation  for  market. 

7.  Insect  enemies  of  tobacco  and  how  to  fight  them. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  60,  82,  83,  126,  343. 

B.     THE  SOIL. 

1.  Origin  and  formation  of  soil.    Ex.  17. 

2.  Composition  of  soil.    Exs.  13,  14,  15,  and  16. 

3.  Soil  water.    Exs.  17,  19,  20. 

4.  Experiments  to  show  how  plants  absorb  water  from  the  soil. 

Exs.  21,  22,  23. 

5.  Soil  air.    Ex.  25. 

6.  Soil  temperature.    Ex.  18,  26. 

7.  Soil  drainage.    Ex.  27. 

8.  Meaning  and  method  of  tilling  the  soil. 

Literature. 

King,  The  Soil,  chapters  2,  5,  and  6. 

King,  Physics  of  Agriculture. 

Any  good  Physical  Geography,  chapter  on  weathering. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  187,  245,  257,  266. 

Bureau  of  Soils,  Circular  No.  13. 

Year  Book,  Reprint,  No.  169  (1899). 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  19 


C.     PLANT  PROPAGATION. 
Propagation  by  Seeds 

1.  Process  of  germination. 

(a)  Absorption  of  moisture. 

(b)  Chemical  'changes    of   compounds    in   the    seed   from 

insoluble  to  soluble  substances. 

(c)  The  production  of  heat. 

2.  Conditions  of  germination. 

(a)  Vitality  of  seed. 

(b)  Moisture. 

(c)  Heat. 

(d)  Air. 

3.  Vitality  of  seeds  conditioned  by : 

(a)  Maturity. 

(b)  Age. 

(c)  Size. 

(d)  Kind. 

(e)  Extremes  of  temperature. 

(f )  Eepeated  germination. 

Exs.  28,  29,  30. 

4.  Methods  of  production  and  preservation  of  most  important 

seeds. 

5.  Selecting  seeds  of  different  crops. 

6.  Seed  testing. 

(a)  For  germination  (see  Ex.  6). 

(b)  For  impurities.    Ex.  31. 

7.  Treatment  of  refractory  seeds. 

(a)  By  freezing  (hickory,  oak,  walnut,  hazel,  pear,  apple, 

peach,  plum,  etc.). 

(b)  By  scalding  (black  locust,  honey  locust,  Kentucky  coffee 

bean). 

(c)  By  stratifying    (berries,  blackberry,   strawberry,   rasp- 

berry, rose). 


20 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

II.      Propagation  Other  Than  by  Seeds.      Ex.  32. 

1.  Spores — mushrooms,  ferns. 

2.  Root  stocks — iris,  calamus,  June  grass. 

3.  Stolons  or  runners — strawberry. 

4.  Suckers  or  root  stalks — blackberry. 

5.  Bulbs  or  corms — onion,  crocus. 

6.  Tubers — Irish  potato,  artichoke. 

7.  Cuttings — grape,  currant. 

8.  Grafts — apple,  pear. 

9.  Layers — grape,  ornamental  vines. 

Exs.  33,  34,  35,  36,  37. 
Literature. 

Plant  Propagation,  Pub.  School  Bulletin,  No.  1,  pub.  by  Univcr 

sity  of  Missouri. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  Xo.  157. 
Bailey,  Nursery  Book. 

D.     PLANT  GROWTH. 

t.     Conditions  of  plant  growth. 

(a)  Plant  food. 

(b)  Moisture. 

(c)  Heat. 

(d)  Air. 

(e)  Light. 

Exs.  38,  39,  40. 

2.  Principal  elements  of  plant  food :  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 

carbon,    sulphur,    phosphorous,    potassium,    calcium, 
magnesium,  iron. 

3.  Air-derived    elements:    oxygen,   hydrogen,   nitrogen,    carbon. 

Kxs.   11.  I-.'.  i:>.  II.     (See  any  elementary  chemistry 
forO.,  X..  II..  C(X.) 

4.  Soil-derived  elements:  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  mag- 

nesium, iron,  sulphur.    Ex.  45. 


^1  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  21 

5.  Relative  amount  of  soil-derived    and   air-derived   plant  food. 

6.  Most  important  soil-derived  elements:  nitrogen,  phosphorus 

and  potassium.    Ex.  46. 

E.     ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS. 

1.  Insects. 

(a)  Biting  insects,  as  potato  beetle,  cabbage  worm,  etc. 

(b)  Sucking  insects,  as  chinch  bug,  plant  lice,  squash  bug, 

San  Jose  scale,  etc. 

2.  Diseases  caused  by  certain  bacteria,  as  fire  blight  in  pear  and 

apple  tree. 

3.  Fungus  diseases,  as  brown  rot  on  peaches,  potato  scab,  rust 

on  wheat  and  oats,  etc.    Ex.  47. 

4.  Spraying  to  control  insects  and  diseases. 

(a)  Fungicides — Bordeaux  mixture,  lime-sulphur,  etc. 

(b)  Poisons   for  biting  insects — Paris   green,   arsenate   of 

lead,  hellebore,  etc.    Ex.  48. 

(c)  Contact    remedies    for    sucking    insects — lime-sulphur, 

tobacco,  carbon  bisulphide,  etc. 

5.  Identification  of  injurious  insects  and  preparation  of  collec- 

tion.   Exs.  49,  50,  51,  52,  53. 

Note. — This  collection  should  be  as  complete  as  possible,  well 
mounted  and  increased  from  year  to  year.  It  should  include  all  the 
more  common  insect  enemies  of  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  orchard  fruits, 
and  garden  plants. 

Literature. 

Bailey,  Nursery  Book. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  91,  99,  126,  132,  155,  227,  231,  264,  275, 

281,  283,  316,  320,  329. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 

E.     ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY. 
I.      The  Horse. 

1.  Origin  and  brief  history. 

2.  The  two  principal  types. 


22  .1  UNIT  IN 


(a)  The  speed  type,    (b)  Tin-  draft  type. 

3.  Breeds  of  horses. 

(a)  Draft  breeds  —  Pert-heron,  Clydesdale,  Knglish  Shire. 

(b)  Roadsters  —  American   trotter,  American  saddle   horse, 

English  thoroughbred,  Hackney  French  coach. 

4.  Care  of  horses. 
Literature. 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  1-166. 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletins,  Nos.  37,  113. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  170. 

II.  Cattle. 

1.  Origin  and  brief  history. 

2.  The  two  principal  types. 

(a)  Dairy  cattle. 

(b)  Beef  cattle.    Ex.  54. 

3.  Breeds  of  cattle. 

(a)  Beef   breeds  —  Shorthorn,   Hereford,   Polled   Hereford, 

Aberdeen-Angus,  Polled  Durham,  Galloway. 

(b)  Dairy  breeds  —  Holstein-Friesian,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayr- 

shire, Dutch  Belted,  Brown  Swiss. 

(c)  Dual    purpose    breeds  —  Shorthorn    (milking    strains), 

Devon,  Red  Polled. 

4.  Cattle  products  —  meat,  milk,  leather,  glue,  etc. 
Literature. 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  175-322. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  29,  42,  55,  63,  71,  106,  166,  183,  233,  241, 
350. 

III.  Sheep. 

1.  The  two  types. 

(a)  Wool  producing  type. 

(b)  Mutton  producing  type. 

2.  Principal  breeds. 

(a)  Wool  producing  —  American  Merino,  Delaine  and  Ram- 
bouillet. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  23 

(b)   Mutton  producing — Shropshire,  Southdown,  and  Cots- 
wold. 

3.     Care  of  sheep. 
Literature. 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  333-454. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  96,  119,  159. 

IV.  Swine. 

1.  A  study  of  the  following  principal  breeds:     Poland-China, 

Berkshire,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White,  Hampshire, 
Tarn  worth,  Large  Yorkshire. 

2.  Care  of  swine. 

3.  Diseases  of  swine  and  how  to  control  or  prevent  them. 

(a)  Hog  cholera. 

(b)  Tuberculosis. 
Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  100,  133,  222,  272,  296,  315,  329. 
Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  467-554. 

V.  Poultry.     Chickens. 

1.  The  four  principal  types. 

(a)  Meat  type. 

(b)  Egg  type. 

(c)  General  purpose  type. 

(d)  Ornamental  type. 

2.  Breeds. 

(a)  Meat  type  or  Asiatic  class — Brahma,  Cochin,  Langshan. 

(b)  Egg  type  or  Mediterranean  class — Leghorns,  Minorca, 

Black  Spanish.    Ex.  55. 

(c)  General  purpose  or  American  class — Plymouth   Rock, 

Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red. 

3.  Care  of  poultry. 

(a)  Feeding  chickens. 

(b)  The  incubator. 

(c)  The  chicken  house.    Ex.  56. 


24  .1   r.V/7'  7.V 


4.     Poultry  and  poultry  products,  their  growing  importance,  value 

and  use. 
Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  51,  128,  182,  236,  281,  287. 

VI.  Live  Stock  Judging. 

1.  Horse. 

(a)  Heavy  horse.    Ex.  57. 

(b)  Light  horse.    Ex.  58. 

2.  Cattle. 

(a)  Beef  cattle.    Ex.  59. 

(b)  Dairy  cattle.    Ex.60. 

3.  Sheep. 

(a)   Mutton.    Ex.61. 

4.  Swine.    Ex.  62. 

VII.  Feeding. 

1.  Composition  of  food  plants:  (a)  water,  (b)  ash,  (c)  protein, 

(d)  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

2.  Percentage  of  each  in  different  plants. 

3.  Function  of  each  constituent. 

4.  Composition  of  animal  tissue.     (Compare  with  animal   fond 

plants.) 

5.  Digestion  and  palatability  of  foods. 

6.  The  balanced  ration. 

C.     PROBLEMS  OF  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

I.  Choice  of  Farm  Determined  By: 

(1)  purpose,  (2)  capital,  (3)  character  of  soil,  (4)  climate,  (5) 
nearness  to  market,  (6)  improvements,  (7)  environ- 
ment —  roads,  schools,  factories,  etc. 

II.  The  Farm  Home  or  Dwelling: 

(1)  location,  (2)  character  and  material,  (3)  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  rooms,  (4)  drainage,  (5)  water  supply,  (6) 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  25 

lighting,  (7)  heating  and  ventilation,  (8)  furniture, 
(9)  environment — shade,  lawn,  other  buildings,  etc. 
Exs.  63,  64. 
Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  126,  155,  270,  317,  342. 

II.      Other  Farm  Buildings: 

(1)  number,  (2)  purpose,  (3)  location,  (4)  material,  (5)  adapt- 
ability, (6)  sanitation.    Ex.  65. 
Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  32,  126,  136,  225,  227. 

IV.  Maintenance  of  Soil  Fertility. 

1.  Fundamental  importance  of  this  problem.     (Review  work  on 

soils  and  plant  growth.) 

2.  The  problem  involves : 

(a)  The  topography  of  the  land. 

(b)  The  physical  properties  of  the  soil. 

(c)  The  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil. 

3.  Means  of  maintaining  soil  fertility. 

(a)  Crop  rotation. 

(b)  Use  of  fertilizers.    Ex.  66,  67. 
Literature. 

Missouri  Experiment  Station,  Circular  No.  38  (1910). 

[Best.] 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  44,  77,  192,  222,  225,  245,  257,  266,  278, 
327,  342. 

Vivian,  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility. 

V.  Improvement  of  Farm  Animals. 

1.  Determining  what  animals  shall  be  grown  on  the  farm. 

2.  Importance  of  selecting  only  the  best  breeds. 

3.  Economy  in  feeding — the  balanced  ration. 

4.  Study  of  comparative  value  of  common  foods  at  current  prices 


26  A  r.V/7'  l\  AGRICUWURB 

Literature. 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,   Nos.   22,  40,   71,   06,   100,   137,   170,   205, 
364,  378. 

VI.  Farm  Machinery. 

A  study  of  the  best  types  of  farm  machinery  in  use  in  the  com- 
munity. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  303,  321,  347. 

VII.  Additional  Topics  for  Special  Study. 

(Select  at  will  according  to  the  dominant  interests  of  the  com- 
munity.) 

1.  The  home  garden.    Ex.  68. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  04,  154,  218,  255. 

2.  Farm  forestry.    Ex.  60. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  173. 
Year  Book,  1003,  pp.  270-88. 

3.  Agricultural  manufacturing.     Ex.  70. 

4.  Special  study  of  the  dairy. 

(a)  Butter  making — the  Babcock  milk  test.    Ex.  71. 

(b)  Cheese  making. 

Literature. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  20,  55,  166,  201,  227,  241. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  27 


PART  II. 

STUDENTS'  LABORATORY  MANUAL. 

FARM  CROPS. 
Ex.  1.     A  Grain  of  Com. 

Soak  a  few  grains  of  corn  in  hot  water  for  twenty  minutes.  With 
a  small  sharp  knife,  remove  the  tip  cap.  This  tip  cap  is  a  small  cap 
covering  the  end  of  the  kernel.  Beginning  at  the  end  where  the  hull 
has  been  broken  by  the  removal  of  the  tip  cap,  pull  off  the  hull  in 
strips.  The  part  immediately  under  the  hull  and  covering  almost  or 
quite  all  of  the  kernel  is  called  the  horny  gluten.  Carefully  remove 
it  by  shaving  it  off  with  a  sharp  knife.  Now  carefully  remove  the 
germ.  Notice  carefully  the  size,  position  and  parts  of  the  germ.  After 
the  tip  cap,  hull,  horny  gluten,  and  germ  have  been  removed,  there 
remains  only  starch,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds — the  horny  starch 
and  the  white  starch.  The  horny  starch  lies  next  to  the  horny  gluten 
on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  kernel.  The  white  starch  occupies  the 
crown  end  of  the  kernel  above  the  germ,  and  it  also  nearly  surrounds 
the  germ  toward  the  tip  of  the  kernel.  Separate,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  horny  starch  and  the  white  starch.  How  many  and  what  distinct 
parts  have  we  found?  Make  an  enlarged  drawing  of  grain  of  corn, 
front  view,  showing  and  naming  the  parts. 

Ex.  2.     An  Ear  of  Corn. 

Material :  three  or  four  different  varieties  of  corn  grown  in  the 
neighborhood.  Table  the  varieties  by  name.  Observe  carefully  and 
note  the  following:  (1)  color  of  grain,  color  of  cob,  and  whether  sur- 
face of  ear  is  smooth,  rough  or  very  rough ;  (2)  number  of  rows,  num- 
ber of  grains  in  a  row;  (3)  total  number  of  grains  on  the  ear;  (4) 
whether  the  rows  are  straight  or  twisted,  and,  if  twisted,  which  way; 
(5)  whether  the  grains  arc  closely  packed  or  loose,  firmly  attached  to 
the  cob  or  loosely  attached;  (6)  whether  shafpe  of  ear  is  cylindrical, 
conical,  or  irregular.  Do  you  think  the  ear  is  well  proportioned? 


28 A  UNIT  IX  MUiHTLTURE 

N->(e  tin-  luitl  <>f  tlic  o;ir  .mil  de^eribe  as  even,  slightly  rounded.  \\el! 
rounded,  erlarp'd,  ete.  Dcsenbe  and  <lra\v  tin-  tip  of  the  eir.  Notie.- 
earefully  the-  shajx.'  of  tin-  grains  and  their  position  on  the  cob. 
Measure  length  of  ear,  circumference  of  ear.  Find  weight  of  corn  and 
weight  of  cob.  Give  percentage  of  grain.  (The  percentage  should  be 
from  86  to  90.) 

Ex.  3.      The  Corn  Plant. 

Go  to  any  corn  field  near  the  school. 
Observe  closely  and  note : 

1.  Xame  of  variety. 

2.  Size  of  field. 

3.  Height  of  plant  (average  of  ten  plants). 

4.  Number  of  leaves  on  plant  (average  of  ten  plants). 

5.  Xumber  of  leaves  below  ear  (average  of  ten  plants). 

6.  Average  leaf  surface   (take  the  product  of  the  length  and 

breadth  of  the  average  leaf  times  the  number  of  leaves). 

7.  Husks :  whether  abundant,  medium  or  scarce. 

8.  Husks :  whether  close,  medium  or  loose. 

9.  Height  of  ear  above  ground  (average  of  ten  plants). 

10.  Position  of  ear  on  the  stalk:   whether  pendant,  horizontal  or 

pointed  upward. 

11.  Shank:  whether  long  or  short,  strong  or  weak. 

Measure  ten  hills  square;  give  number  of  ears  in  one  hundred 
hills.  Count  the  missing  hills  in  the  plot.  Determine  the  percentage 
of  stand.  Give  number  of  stalks  having  two  ears  and  number  having 
no  ear.  Find  distance  apart  of  hills  each  way.  Give  number  of  hills 
per  acre.  Measure  off  one  acre  which  represents  a  good  average  of 
the  field ;  husk  one-twentieth  of  this,  and,  after  weighing  same  care- 
fully, estimate  the  average  yield  of  field.  If  hills  of  corn  are  3  feet  6 
inches  each  way,  how  many  hills  to  the  acre? 

If,  in  a  field  of  corn  planted  3  feet  6  inches  each  way,  there  is 
on  the  average  11/2  Ibs.  of  corn  to  each  hill,  allowing  10  Ibs.  to  the 
bushel  for  shrinkage,  what  is  the  yield  per  acre  ? 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  29 

If  corn  is  planted  3  feet  6  inches  each  way,  and  when  mature  is 
cut  and  put  in  shocks,  each  shock  containing  corn  from  an  area  14 
hilis  square,  how  many  shocks  to  the  acre?  How  many,  if  shocks  are 
Ki  hills  square? 

The  following  tables  will  assist  in  making  accurate  estimate  cf  the 
amount  of  land  in  different  fields  or  plots : 

10  rods  x  16  rods  =  1  acre. 
8  rods  x  20  rods  =  1  acre. 
5  rods  x  32  rods  =  1  acre. 

4  rods  x    40      rods  =  1  acre. 

5  yds.  x  968     yds.  =  1  acre. 
10  yds.  x  484     yds.  =  1  acre. 
20  yds.  x  242      yds.  =  1  acre. 
40  yds.  x  121      yds.  =  1  acre. 
80  yds.  x    601/2  yds.  =  1  acre. 

220  ft.  x  198  ft.  =  1  acre. 
440  ft.  x  99.  ft.=  1  acre. 
110  ft.  x  396  ft.  =  1  acre. 

60  ft.  x  726  '  ft.  =  1  acre. 
120  ft.  x  363  ft.  =  1  acre. 
240  ft.  x  181.5  ft.  =  1  acre. 
200  ft.  x  108.9  ft.  =  1/2  acre. 
100  ft.  x  145.2  ft.  =  %  acre. 

10  square  chains  =  1  acre. 

160  square  rods     =  1  acre. 

4,840  square  yards    =  1  acre. 

43,560  square  feet      =  1  acre. 

640  square  acres  =  1  square  mile. 

36  square  miles     (6  miles  sq.)=l  township. 

Ex.  4.      Corn  Judging — Single  Ear. 

A  good  ear  of  corn  may  be  described  as  follows : — The  ear  should 
be  from  9  to  10i/>  inches  long  and  from  7  to  7%  inches  around,  meas- 
ured at  a  point  1-3  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip.  It  should 


30 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE       

be  practically  the  same  diameter  from  end  to  end ;  that  is,  it  should 
not  be  distinctly  tapering.  The  rows  of  kernels  should  be  straight 
and  the  kernels  should  be  of  such  a  shape  that  they  will  fit  tightly 
together  with  no  furrows  left  between  the  rows.  The  butts  should  be 
well  rounded  out  with  kernels  evenly  arranged  around  a  cup  shaped 
cavity  about  one  inch  across.  The  tips  should  be  well  filled  out  to  the 
cud  with  deep,  even  kernels.  The  kernels  of  the  ear  should  all  be 
very  nearly  the  same  size  and  shape.  They  should  be  wedge  shaped, 
lint  not  pointed;  they  should  have  large,  smooth  hearts  or  germs,  not 
blistered  or  discolored.  The  length  of  the  kernel  should  be  about  l1/^ 
times  as  great  as  its  width  at  the  widest  part,  and  it  should  be  of  the 
same  thickness  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  kernels  should  show 
no  mixture  with  corn  of  the  opposite  color.  The  cob  should  be  of 
medium  size,  neither  very  large  nor  very  small. 

Secure  a  number  of  ears  of  corn  and  notice  the  faults  of  each. 
Pick  out  the  ones  that  are  most  nearly  perfect.  Take  an  ear  and 
write  a  description  of  it,  telling  in  what  points  it  is  good  and  in  what 
points  it  is  imperfect. 

Lay  five  ears  of  corn  on  the  table  and  try  to  pick  out  the  one  hav- 
ing the  least  number  of  faults.  Go  over  the  various  points  of  the 
ear  as  given  in  Lesson  4,  in  the  description  of  a  good  ear,  and  place 
that  ear  which  is  most  nearly  perfect  on  the  left.  Put  the  next  best 
one  second,  the  third  best  third,  and  so  on.  In  what  ways  is  No.  1 
better  than  No.  2  ?  Give  the  good  and  bad  points  of  each  ear. 

Ex.  5.      Corn  Judging — Use  of  Score  Card. 

At  fairs  and  other  places  where  corn  is  shown  for  premiums,  it  is 
customary  to  show  ten  ears  together  as  a  sample.  Consequently,  in 
judging  such  samples,  ten  ears  must  be  considered  instead  of  a  single 
ear.  To  help  in  this  judging,  a  card  giving  a  scale  of  points  arranged 
to  represent  the  different  characters  of  the  ears  is  used.  This  is  called 
a  score  card,  and  the  one  that  is  used  in  Missouri  is  as  follows: 

Scale  of  Points 

Maturity  and  soundness 10 

Uniformity  of  ears 10 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  31 

Length  10 

Circumference    5 

Purity  of  cobs 5 

Purity  of  kernels 5 

Uniformity  of  kernels 10 

Shape  of  kernels 10 

Character  of  germ 10 

Space  between  rows 5 

Butts    5 

Tips  5 

Size  of  cob 10 

Total    100 

Following  is  an  explanation  of  how  to  use  the  score  card : 
Maturity  and  soundness.     (10.) 

An  ear  that  is  not  mature  will  not  be  perfectly  tight.    This  is  the 
best  determined  by  giving  the  ear  a  slight  twist.    The  kernels 
should  all  be  sound  and  free  from  decay.     For  every  ear  not 
perfectly  mature  and  sound,  deduct  one  point. 
Uniformity  of  ears.   (10.) 

All  ears  in  the  sample  should  be  as  nearly  alike  in  every  way  as 
possible.     This  is  very  important.     They  should  be  the  same 
in  size,  in  color  and  in  character  of  kernel.     For  every  ear 
strikingly  different  from  the  average,  deduct  one  point. 
Shape  of  ears.     (10.) 

Ears  should  be  practically  the  same  diameter  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  For  each  ear  that  is  distinctly  tapering,  deduct  one 
point. 

Length.     (10.) 

Ears  should  be  between  9  and  10i/£  inches  in  length.     For  every 
ear  that  is  under  8%  inches  or  for  every  ear  that  is  over 
inches,  deduct  one  point. 


.1   UNIT  !\    (ORICULTURE 


('in  •  ii  in  f  rir  nrr.      ('<.) 

Ears  should  be  from  7  <<>  71/::  inches  unmixl,  measured  at  a  point 
1-3  the  distance  from  butt   to  tip.      Km-  cadi  car  less  than  7 
inches  or  over  7%  inches,  deduct  one-half  point. 
Purity  of  cob.     (5.) 

Yellow  corn  should  have  red  cobs,  and  white  corn',  white  cobs 
(with  the  exception  of  St.  Charles  White).    A  single  ear  with 
a  cob  of  the  wrong  color  bars  an  exhibit  from  competing  f<>r 
prizes. 
Purity  of  kernel.     (5.) 

For  every  mixed  kernel  in  the  exhibit,  deduct  one-fourth  point. 
Uniformity  of  kernels.     (5.) 

All  ears  should  have  kernels  of  approximately  the  same  size.     For 
every  ear  having  kernels  larger  or  smaller  than  the  average, 
deduct  one-half  point. 
Shape  of  kernels.     (5.) 

Take  out  two  kernels  from  the  middle  of  each  ear.    Deduct  one- 
half  point  for  each  ear  having  poorly  shaped  kernels. 
Character  of  germ.     (10.) 

Examine  kernels  of  each  ear  as  to  character  of  germ  and  deduct 

one  point  for  each  ear  having  poor  germs. 
Space  between  rows.     (5.) 

For  each  ear  having  wide  furrows  between  the  rows  of  kernels, 

deduct  one-half  point. 
Butts.     (5.) 

For  each  poor  butt,  deduct  one-half  point. 
Tips.     (5.) 

For  each  poor  tip,  deduct  one-half  point. 
Size  of  Cob.     (10.) 

For  each  ear  having  a  cob  either  too  large  or  too  small,  deduct  one 
point. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  33 

Ex.  6.      Testing  Seed  Corn  for  Germination. 

Make  a  box  4  inches  deep,  14  inches  long,  and  12  inches  wide. 
Fill  the  box  half  full  of  moist  earth,  packing  it  down  firmly  so  that 
the  surface  is  even  and  smooth.  Rule  a  piece  of  white  cloth,  the  size 
of  the  box,  into  squares  2  inches  each  way.  Number  the  squares  1,  2, 
3,  4. . .  .30.  Place  the  cloth  on  the  soil  in  the  box  and  tack  it  to  the 
corners  and  edges  of  the  box  to  keep  it  in  place.  Number  thirty  ears 
of  corn.  Take  ten  grains  from  each  ear — from  middle,  tip,  and  butt. 
IMnce  these  grains  on  the  square  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the 
ear.  When  all  the  samples  are  in  place,  cover  with  a  piece  of  cheese 
cloth  the  size  of  the  box.  Now  cover  with  a  heavier  cloth  larger  than 
the  box  and  over  this  place  about  2  inches  of  moist  earth.  Put  in  a 
warm  place  and  let  it  remain  ten  days. 

Carefully  remove  the  cover.  ^Now  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
ten  kernels  in  each  square  and  carefully  note  those  which  either  failed 
to  grow  or  are  weak  in  vitality.  In  how  many  and  in  which  squares 
did  all  the  kernels  germinate?  In  how  many  and  in  which  squares 
did  no  kernels  germinate  ?  If  you  had  planted  all  the  seed  from  these 
thirty  ears,  what  per  cent  of  a  stand  of  corn  would  you  have? 

Ex.  7.      Study  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat. 

Soak  a  few  grains  of  wheat  in  warm  water.  Using  a  lens  and  a 
small  sharp  knife,  try  to  remove  the  coverings  of  the  grain.  There 
are  four  of  these,  three  epidermic  layers  and  one  testa  or  true  seed 
coat.  These  coats  constitute  the  bran  and  make  up  about  11  per  cent 
of  the  grain. 

Immediately  under  the  testa,  find  the  endosperm.  This  makes 
up  the  large  part  of  the  seed  and  is  the  flour  of  commerce.  Notice 
the  position,  form  and  size  of  the  embryo. 

Ask  your  teacher  to  cut  a  thin  slice  across  the  grain,  place  in  a 
drop  of  water  on  a  glass  slide,  cover  with  a  cqver  glass  and  place 
under  the  low  power  of  the  compound  microscope. 

Observe  carefully  and  draw,  naming  the  parts. 


34  .1   UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Ex.  8.      Study  of  a  Head  of  Wheat. 

Observe  that  the  grains  are  arranged  in  groups  on  either  side  of 
the  stem.  A  single  group  is  called  a  mesh.  How  many  meshes  on 
this  head?  How  are  they  arranged?  How  many  grains  in  a  mesh? 
Is  the  number  uniform?  Are  the  meshes  all  filled?  Find  a  mesh 
with  three  grains,  with  four,  with  five.  Carefully  remove  the  cover- 
ing from  a  single  grain.  How  many  coverings  are  there?  How  is 
the  grain  attached? 

Ex.  9.      The  Wheat  Plant. 

Pull  up  an  entire  wheat  plant.  How  many  stalks  in  the  bunch? 
Does  the  number  vary  with  different  bunches?  How  many  joints  in 
each  stalk?  How  many  leaves  on  each  stalk?  Observe  the  form  and 
arrangement  of  the  roots.  From  the  data  in  Ex.  8  and  9,  estimate 
the  number  of  grains  that  is  produced  by  one  grain. 

Ex.  10.      Study  of  a  Head  of  Oats. 

How  does  the  oat  head  differ  from  the  head  of  wheat?  In  what 
are  they  alike?  Make  drawing.  Carefully  remove  a  single  grain. 
Notice  the  hard  outer,  cover.  Remove  the  hard  cover  and  make  an 
enlarged  drawing  of  the  kernel,  naming  parts. 

Ex.  11.      Study  of  the  Legumes. 

Material :  red  clover,  alsike,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  cow 
peas.  The  specimens  should  be  fresh,  but  dried  ones  may  be  used. 
Study  each  plant  separately. 

1.  Observe  the  number,  arrangement,  size  and  shape  of  leaves, 
and  make  drawing  of  a  leaf. 

2.  Observe  the  number  and  height  of  the  stems,  and  the  diameter 
of  stem  an  inch  above  the  ground.     Are  the  stems  erect,  spreading, 
decumbent,  or  training? 

3.  Are  there  many,  few  or  no  branches? 

4.  If  in  bloom,  notice  the  place,  form,  color,  and  size  of  blossoms. 
Make  drawing  of  a  blossom. 

5.  If  in  seed,  note  kind,  number,  and  shape  of  seed  pods.    Xote 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 35 

number  of  seed  in  pod  and  size  and  form  of  single  seed.    Draw  seed 
pod,  using  magnifier.     Make  enlarged  drawing  of  a  single  seed. 

6.  Observe  carefully  the  form,  size,  number  and  length  of  the 
roots.  Look  closely  for  small  nodules  on  the  roots.  These  nodules 
arc  very  important  and  we  shall  learn  more  about  them  later.  Make 
drawing  of  root. 

Ex.    12.      Study  of  the  Irish  Potato. 

Material :     potatoes,   preferably    of   several    varieties,    with    some 
showing  scab,  dry  rot,  etc. 
Note  the  following: 

1.  Variety:  whether  early,  medium,  or  late. 

2.  Shape :   whether  cylindrical,  oval,  flat  oval,  compound,  regu- 
lar or  irregular. 

3.  Size :  whether  large,  medium,  small,  uniform  or  not  uniform. 

4.  Shape  of  eyes :  whether  deep,  medium  or  shallow ;  oval  or  nar- 
row and  elongated;  large  or  small  (small  as  compared  with  size  of 
tuber) ;  numerous  or  few ;  uniformly  distributed  or  mainly  at  bud 
end;  ridge  prominent  or  ridge  not  prominent. 

5.  Color:   whether  yellowish  white,  pink  or  russet. 

6.  Texture  of  skin:   whether  corky,  netted  or  lenticoled;  glossy 
smooth  or  dull  smooth. 

7.  Color  of  skin :    whether  yellowish  white,  russet,  red,  pink  or 
blue;  uniform  or  not  uniform. 

8.  General  characteristics:    whether  clean  or  dirty;  cracked  or 
not  cracked;  if  diseased,  whether  scab,  dry  rot  or  blight. 

9.  Color  of  flesh:   whether  white,  yellowish,  pink  or  blue. 
Make  a  drawing  of  the  tuber,  showing  eyes,  and  indicate  which 

is  the  stem  end  of  the  tuber. 

SOILS. 
Ex.  13.      Study  of  Soil. 

Material :  a  handful  of  soil  from  the  school  yard.  What  is  the 
color  of  this  soil  ?  Are  all  the  particles  the  same  color  ?  Wet  a  little 


30  .1  UNIT  IN 


and  observe  whether  there  is  a  change  in  color.  Feel  the  soil.  Is  it 
smooth,  sticky,  <>r  gritty?  Do  you  find  small  pieces  of  rock  in  it? 
Examine  closely  with  the  hand  glass  and  describe  fully  all  that  you 
see.  Try  to  find  out  what  the  hard  particles  are.  If  they  will  scratch 
ut;i>>.  \\e  may  be  quite  sure  that  they  arc  some  form  of  quartz.  Put 
sonic  of  the  soil  in  a  large  test  tube,  cover  with  water,  shake  thorough- 
ly and  set  aside  for  a  few  minutes.  Which  part  of  the  soil  goes  to  the 
bottom  of  the  tube?  Which  next?  Make  a  drawing  of  the  soil  in  the 
tube.  By  digging  a  few  holes  in  the  home  garden  or  field,  try  to  find 
out  whether  the  arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  is  the  same  as 
in  the  tube.  Examine  the  soil  along  a  stream  to  see  whether  you 
can  find  illustrations  of  sorting  soil  by  water.  Pour  off  the  water 
from  the  soil  in  the  tube,  and  evaporate  to  dryness.  Is  there  any- 
thing left?  What  do  you  suppose  it  is?  What  does  this  prove? 
Examine  the  inside  of  a  tea  kettle  for  a  scale  of  covering.  How  did 
it  get  there?  Its  presence  there  proves  what? 

Ex.  14.      Study  of  Soil   (continued). 

Material  :  a  handful  of  soil  from  the  school  yard.  Carefully  weigh 
a  small  handful  of  the  soil.  Now  dry  thoroughly,  being  careful  not 
to  burn  any  part  of  it,  and  weigh  it  again.  Account  for  any  difference 
in  weight.  The  loss  in  weight  is  what  per  cent  of  the  weight  before 
drying?  Now  place  the  dry  soil  in  a  sand  crucible  or  iron  pan  and 
heat  hot.  Cool,  weigh,  and  examine  carefully.  Account  for  any 
loss  in  weight.  Do  you  believe  that  you  could  burn  all  of  the  soil  ? 
Do  you  notice  any  difference  in  color  after  burning?  Do  you  know 
what  it  was  that  burned? 

Ex.  15.      Study  of  Soil   (continued). 

Repeat  Exercise  14,  using  the  richest  black  soil  you  can  get  from 
the  home  garden.  Compare  the  results  with  those  obtained  in  Exer- 
cise 1  I.  Compare  results  with  those  obtained  by  one  of  your  class- 
mates who  used  the  same  soil.  Is  there  substantial  agreement?  Try 
to  account  for  any  difference. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  3? 

Ex.  16.      Field  Lesson. 

Material:  a  suitable  field  as  near  the  schoolhouse  as  possible.  Do 
you  find  any  ledges  of  outcropping  rock?  li'  you  do,  break  off  a  small 
piece  and  compare  the  freshly  broken  surface  with  the  outside  or 
weathered  surface.  Note  carefully  any  difference.  Do  you  find  any 
boulders  or  pebbles  ?  Break  one  open  and  compare  the  freshly  broken 
surface  with  the  outside  surface  as  before.  Are  the  boulders  and 
pebbles  of  the  same  material  as  the  rock  in  the  ledge  ?  Select  a  piece 
of  each  different  rock  you  find  to  take  to  school  for  future  study. 

Look  along  the  bed  of  a  stream  for  pebbles.  (If  there  is  no  stream 
at  hand,  this  work  may  be  done  at  another  time  and  place  by  indi- 
vidual pupils.)  How  do  the  pebbles  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  com- 
pare in  size  and  shape  with  those  back  from  the  stream?  How  do 
you  account  for  the  difference  ? 

Find  some  good  rich  soil  and  dig  a  hole  about  18x12  inches  and 
18  inches  to  2  feet  deep.  Observe  closely  the  material  and  the  color 
at  different  depths.  Notice  especially  the  amount  of  black  soil. 

Make  a  drawing  of  one  side  of  the  wall.  Repeat  this  exercise  by 
digging  the  hole  on  a  steep  slope.  Account  for  any  differences  in 
the  soil  at  the  two  places.  What  is  subsoil?  Which  do  you  think 
will  grow  the  better  crop,  the  side  hill  or  the  lowland?  Why?  From 
your  observation  of  farm  crops,  can  you  state  whether  this  is  gen- 
erally true? 

Ex.  17.     Soil  Texture. 

Material :  sand,  clay,  and  loam — two  small  fruit  jars  full  of  each, 
from  the  farms  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school,  if  possible.  Label 
each  jar  and  set  one  jar  of  each  aside  for  use  in  Exercise  18.  Com- 
pare the  three  kinds  of  soil  as  to  color,  texture,  and  amount  of  humus. 
Put  some  of  each  kind  in  a  large  test  tube,  cover  with  water,  shake 
thoroughly  and  set  aside.  Which  settles  most  rapidly  ?  Most  slowly  ? 
Which  contains  particles  that  float  ?  If  these  soils  were  poured  into  a 
running  stream  which  would  be  carried  farthest  ?  Put  a  little  hydro- 
chloric acid  on  each  and  note  the  result.  Mix  the  three  samples  in  a 


365437 


38 A  UNIT  IX  AGRICULTURE 

large  test  tube  or  long  bottle,  cover  with  water,  shake  thoroughly  and 
set  aside.  Which  soil  is  at  the  bottom?  Which  at  the  top?  Make 
drawing  of  tube.  Compare  with  result.-  of  Kxeivise  \'A.  Dry  some 
of  each  kind  of  soil  as  in  Exercise  1  I.  Weigh  very  carefully  about 
the  same  amount  of  each,  and  put  in  separate  beakers.  (Each  soil 
should  be  pulverized  after  drying.)  Pour  water  itfto  each  beaker 
from  a  graduate  containing  a  measured  quantity,  until  the  water 
rises  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Find  how  much  water  it  takes  in  each 
case,  recording  results  as  follows: 

Sand  Clay  Loam 

Volume  of  soil 

Volume  of  water  added 

Per  cent  of  air  space 

The  amount  of  water  is  the  approximate  measure  of  the  air  space. 
Which  soil  contains  the  most  air?  Which  least? 

Ex.  18.      Temperature  of  Soils. 

Material:  the  three  jars  of  soil  set  aside  in  Exercise  17.  Into 
each  jar  pour  sufficient  water  to  wet  thoroughly.  In  each  jar  put  a 
thermometer  so  placed  that  the  bulb  is  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Weigh  each  jar  and  set  the  jars  close  together  in  the  window 
and  where  the  sunlight  can  strike  fairly.  Take  the  temperature  and 
weight  of  each  jar  at  the  same  hour  of  the  day  on  alternate  days 
for  one  week.  Record  the  results  as  follows: 

Sand  Clay  Loam 

Weight  first  observation 

Weight  second  observation 

Weight  third  observation 

Temperature  first  observation 

Temperature  second  observation 

Temperature  third  observation 

Which  soil  shows  the  highest  temperature?  Which  the  lowest? 
From  which  does  the  water  evaporate  most  rapidly?  From  which 
does  it  evaporate  most  slowly  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  warm  soil  ?  By  a 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 39 

cold  soil?  By  a  dry  soil?  By  a  wet  soil?  Review  Exercise  14  and 
state  whether  there  is  any  relation  hetween  soil  temperature  and  air 
space.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  a  cold  soil  may  be  made 
warmer  ? 

Ex.   19.      Water  Capacity  of  Soils. 

Material :  different  kinds  of  soils,  five  long-necked  bottles  with 
the  bottoms  broken  off,  rack  for  holding  bottles,  five  tumblers.  Tie  a 
small  piece  of  cheese  cloth  over  the  mouth  of  each  bottle,  place  in  the 
frame  upside  down  with  a  tumbler  under  each.  Fill  the  bottles  to 
the  same  height,  about  two-thirds  full,  with  different  kinds  of  soil. 
Firm  the  soils  by  shaking  the  bottle.  With  watch  in  hand  and  glass 
of  water  held  as  ne?r  as  possible  to  the  soil,  pour  water  into  one  of 
the  bottles  just  fast  enough  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  covered. 
Note  how  long  before  the  water  begins  dropping  into  the  tumbler 
below.  Do  the  same  with  each  of  the  other  bottles.  Which  takes  in 
water  most  rapidly  ?  Which  most  slowly  ?  Which  is  the  most  porous  ? 
Which  is  the  least  porous?  Compare  results  with  results  in  Exercise 
18.  What  happens  to  the  less  porous  soils  when  a  heavy  shower  of 
rain  comes?  Repeat  the  experiment  with  any  two  of  the  soils,  pack- 
ing the  soil  in  the  bottle  tightly  before  pouring  in  the  water.  What 
is  the  effect  of  packing?  Does  this  experiment  have  any  bearing  on 
farm  practice  ?  What  bearing  has  it  ?  Which  of  the  soils  could  absorb 
the  heaviest  shower?  Which  soil  continued  to  drip  longest?  Which 
would  drain  most  readily? 

Ex.  20.      Capillarity  of  Soils. 

Material :  same  as  in  Exercise  19.  Fill  each  bottle  with  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  dry  soil.  Fill  each  tumbler  about  two-thirds  full  of  water 
and  set  the  bottles,  neck  down,  in  the  tumblers  so  that  the  cheese 
cloth  is  just  above  the  bottom  of  the  tumbler.  Observe  the  rise  of 
water  in  the  different  soils.  Note  how  high  it  rises  in  each  bottle  and 
the  time  it  takes.  In  which  soil  does  the  water  rise  most  rapidly? 
In  which  to  the  greatest  height?  Which  soil  draws  up  the  greatest 
amount  of  water  ?  This  can  be  determined  by  measuring  or  weighing 


40 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

tlic  \vatrr  in  the  tumbler  l.rloiv  and  after  the  experiment.  This- power 
of  soils  to  raise  water  from  below  is  called  capillarity,  and  the  water 
is  called  capillary  water.  Because  of  this  capillarity,  plants  are  able 
to  get  moist n re  from  the  subsoil  in  time  of  drought.  What  effect  on 
water  capacity  does  the  addition  of  organic  matter  have?  (Jive  one 
method  by  which  the  farmer  may  increase  the  amount  of  organic  mat- 
ter in  the  soil. 

Wator  that  percolates  through  the  soil  until  it  reaches  the  rock 
or  hard  pan  is  called  soil  water.  How  deep  are  the  wells  in  your 
neighborhood?  Are  they  deeper  on  the  upland  than  on  the  lowland? 
Is  the  impervious  layer  rock  or  clay?  Are  there  any  springs?  If  so, 
observe  the  character  of  the  strata  over  which  the  water  flows. 

Ex.  21.      Absorption  of  Moisture  from  the  Soil. 

Material :  a  wide  mouthed  bottle,  an  egg,  a  glass  tube  3  or  4 
inches  long  and  about  y±  inch  in  diameter,  a  candle  and  a  piece  of 
wire  about  5  inches  long. 

Remove  part  of  the  shell,  about  the  size  of  a  dime,  from  the  large 
end  of  the  egg,  without  breaking  the  skin  beneath.  In  the  same  man- 
ner remove  a  piece  of  shell,  no  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  glass 
tube,  from  the  small  end  of  the  egg.  Cut  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
candle  a  piece  about  Vi>  inch  long  and  bore  a  hole  in  this  the  size  of 
the  glass  tube.  Soften  one  end  of  the  piece  of  candle  and  stick  it  on 
the  small  end  of  the  egg  so  that  the  hole  in  the  candle  covers  the  hole 
in  the  egg,  making  a  water-tight  joint.  Place  the  glass  tube  in  the 
hole  in  the  candle,  cement  closely  as  before.  Now  run  the  wire  down 
the  tube  and  break  the  skin  of  the  egg.  Now  fill  the  bottle  with 
water  until  it  overflows  and  set  the  egg  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle, 
small  end  up.  In  an  hour  or  so,  the  white  of  the  egg  will  be  seen  ris- 
ing in  the  glass  tube.  The  water  enters  the  egg  through  the  skin  and 
forces  the  white  to  rise  in  the  tube.  The  skin  itself  has  no  openings 
that  can  be  seen  even  with  a  microscope.  This  process  by  which  a 
liquid  passes  through  a  membrane  is  called  osmosis.  It  is  by  this 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  41 

process  that  water  containing  plant  food  enters  the  fine  root  hairs  of 
plants. 

Ex.    22.      Absorption  of  Moisture  from  Soil   (continued). 

Material:  thistle  tube,  piece  of  waste  bladder,  jar,  water  and 
molasses.  Partly  fill  the  thistle  tube  with  molasses.  Tie  the  bladder 
over  the  large  end  of  the  tube  and  insert  into  the  jar  of  water.  Put 
the  tube  into  the  jar  so  that  the  molasses  in  the  stem  is  just  on  the 
level  with  the  water  in  the  jar.  Fasten  the  tube  in  this  position  and 
observe  what  happens.  Explain. 

Ex.  23.      Rise  of  Water  in  Plants. 

Fill  a  tumbler  one-third  full  of  luke  warm  water  colored  with  a 
few  drops  of  red  ink  or  some  brilliant  coloring  matter.  Place  in  the 
colored  water  the  freshjy  cut  stem  of  a  white  carnation,  lily  or  almost 
any  soft  green  plant.  Observe  closely  and  explain  what  happens. 

Ex.  24.      Rise  of  Water  in  Plants   (continued). 

Pull  up  any  good  sized  green  plant,  as,  for  instance,  a  bunch  of 
clover.  Weigh  it  carefully  and  record  the  weight.  Now  dry  the  plant 
thoroughly,  being  careful  not  to  burn  it,  and  weigh  again.  What  are 
the  percentages  of  dry  material  and  water  as  shown  by  the  weights? 
Estimate  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  in  one  ton  of  freshly  cut 
clover  hay. 

Note. — It  has  been  found  that  corn  roots  take  up  over  300  Ibs. 
of  water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  produced.  Oats  and  clover 
take  up  500  Ibs.  What  two  important  facts  are  shown  by  this  experi- 
ment? 

Ex.  25.      Effects  of  Excluding  Air  from  the  Soil. 

Into  a  fruit  jar  or  water-tight  can  containing  a  healthy  growing 
plant,  pour  water  until  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  covered  to  the  depth 
of  one  inch.  Keep  the  soil  covered  with  water,  observe  the  plant 
closely  for  several  days  and  note  results.  Have  you  noticed  the  effects 
of  standing  water  on  young  corn  ?  If  not,  do  so.  Would  you  say  the 
plant  lias  been  smothered  or  has  it  been  drowned?  Why?  Can  you 
suggest  a  method  of  soil  ventilation? 


42 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Ex.  26.     Soil  Temperature. 

Review  Exercise  19.  Which  of  the  soils  was  warmest?  What 
coldest  ?  In  the  same  jar  of  soil  insert  two  thermometers,  one  to  the 
depth  of  2  inches  and  one  6  inches.  Do  you  notice  any  difference  in 
the  temperature  shown?  Try  this  experiment  out  of  doors  and  note 
the  temperature  of  the  air  as  shown  by  the  third  thermometer  sus- 
pended a  foot  above  the  ground.  Make  three  observations  the  same 
day,  one  at  8:00  a.  m.,  one  at  2:00  p.  m.  and  one  at  6:00  p.  m.  Is 
the  surface  of  the  soil  warmer  or  colder  than  the  air?  Is  this  true 
of  all  times  of  the  day?  If  not,  when?  Is  the  average  temperature 
of  the  surface  soil  higher  or  lower  than  the  average  temperature  of 
the  air?  Which  is  more  nearly  uniform,  the  temperature  of  the  air, 
the  surface  soil  or  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  6  inches?  Do  you  know 
whether  each  of  your  conclusions  above  will  hold  for  different  seasons 
of  the  year?  Should  seeds  be  planted  deeper  or  shallower  in  early 
spring  or  late  spring?  Why? 

Ex.  27.      Soil  Drainage. 

Take  two  flower  pots  the  same  size  and  label  them  1  and  2  re- 
spectively. In  No.  1  pour  melted  paraffin  or  wax  to  plug  up  the  hole 
so  that  no  air  can  get  through.  In  the  bottom  of  No.  2  put  about  one 
inch  of  fine  pebbles  or  coarse  sand.  Nearly  fill  each  pot  with  a 
mixture  of  good  soil  and  sand,  three  parts  soil  and  one  part  sand. 
Place  in  each  pot  a  healthy  growing  plant  of  the  same  kind  and  size. 
Sprinkle  each  with  water  till  the  soil  is  saturated  and  place  the  pots 
in  a  sunny  window.  In  each  pot  place  a  thermometer  with  a  bulb  at 
a  depth  of  two  inches.  Every  two  days  note  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  and  the  condition  of  the  plants  in  each  pot.  If  each  of  these  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  moisture  were  found  in  a  field,  which  would  be 
more  apt  to  be  flooded  in  time  of  rain  ?  In  which  could  the  air  pene- 
trate more  readily?  In  which  would  the  temperature  be  higher? 
Every  two  or  three  days  apply  equal  quantities  of  water  to  each  pot. 
At  the  end  of  a  month  remove  the  plant,  soil  and  all.  In  which  pot 
have  the  roots  gone  deeper?  In  which  would  they  go  deeper,  the 
drained  or  undrained  soil? 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE  43 

PLANT    PROPAGATION. 
Ex.   28.      Absorption  of  Water  by  Seeds. 

Soak  a  few  beans  in  hike  warm  water.  Notice  closely  the  appear- 
ance of  the  bean  at  the  end  of  ten  minutes  and  at  the  end  of  forty 
minutes.  What  changes  in  form  of  surface  and  size  of  bean?  With 
a  hand  lens,  examine  the  bean  closely  to  find  the  place  where  the  water 
gets  in.  Try  the  same  experiment,  using  three  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing seeds :  squash,  apple,  gourd,  pea,  corn,  pumpkin. 

Ex.    29.      Effects  of  Temperature  Upon  Seed  Germination. 

Prepare  two  pieces  of  canton  flannel  a  little  larger  than  a  dinner 
plate.  Wet  one  piece  and  place  it  on  the  bottom  of  the  plate.  On  this 
place  a  few  seeds — squash,  corn,  or  butter  beans.  Moisten  the  second 
piece  of  cloth,  lay  it  over  the  seeds  and  cover  with  a  pane  of  window 
glass.  Prepare  a  second  germinating  apparatus  in  precisely  the  same 
way.  Place  one  of  the  plates  in  a  warm  place,  80  to  120  degrees  if 
possible ;  place  the  other  in  a  cold  place  at  or  near  the  freezing  poini 
if  possible.  (The  refrigerator  may  be  used  in  summer.)  At  inter- 
vals of  two  days  examine  each  and  note  results. 

Ex.    30.      Effects  of  Air  Upon  Seed  Germination  in  Water. 

Fill  two  small  wide  mouthed  bottles  with  water.  Shake  one  thor- 
oughly and  put  a  few  seeds  of  different  kinds  in  it.  Remove  the  water 
from  the  other  bottle  and  boil  it.  Pour  it  back  into  the  bottle  and 
put  in  it  the  same  number  and  kind  of  seeds.  Cover  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  last  bottle  with  oil,  set  both  in  the  window  and  note 
results.  In  which  bottle  do  the  seeds  germinate  best?  Why?  Exer- 
cises 6,  28,  29  and  30  indicate  quite  clearly  the  conditions  of  seed 
germinatidn.  What  are  these  conditions  ?  Give  an  illustration  from 
your  own  experience  on  the  home  farm  or  garden  to  show  that  all 
these  conditions  must  always  be  present  when  seeds  germinate  well. 

Ex.   31.      Purity  of  Seeds. 

Material :  clover  seed  from  several  sources,  alfalfa,  timothy,  wheat 
and  millet.  The  price  of  each  sample  should  be  ascertained.  Weigh 
out  three  grams  of  seed  and  spread  on  a  sheet  of  paper.  Using  a 


44 .1  UXIT  L\  AUIt/t'l'LTURE 

lellS.  M'|i;ir;ite   the  Seeds    into   three    pilo:      (1)    chilli',  (lirl,   broken    seed. 

etc.:  (?)  weed  seed:  (i!)  clover  seed.  \Veii;|i  e;ich  In).  n  cord  the 
results  ;ind  save  the  clean  sect].  Considering  price,  quality  and  weeds, 
which  sample  should  he  purchased. 

Ex.    32.      Propagating  Bed. 

Prepare  a  box  five  or  six  inches  deep,  three  feet  wide  and  any  con- 
venient length  (to  be  determined  by  the  size  of  the  window).  Place 
the  box  on  a  firm  support  and  fill  with  clean  sand  thoroughly  wet.  If 
the  class  is  large  and  the  windows  small,  two  or  more  such  beds  will 
be  needed. 

Ex.   33.      Cuttings. 

Make  cuttings  from  any  or  all  of  the  following  plants :  geranium, 
coleus,  wandering  Jew,  rose,  heliotrope,  chrysanthemum,  begonia, 
California  privet.  Make  a  small  hole  with  a  stick  or  pencil,  insert 
the  cutting  and  then  pack  the  sand  firmly  with  the  fingers.  If  the 
bed  is  properly  made  and  placed,  most  of  the  cuttings  should  grow. 
When  the  cuttings  are  well  rooted,  they  may  be  transplanted  in  pots 
or  in  the  garden. 

Ex.    34.      Grafting.      (Demonstration  by  Teacher.) 

The  teacher  will  prepare  the  roots,  scions,  knife  and  wax,  and  will 
do  the  work  before  the  class,  explaining  each  step.  Each  student  make 
drawings  of  each  kind  of  graft. 

Ex.   35.      Grafting.* 

Each  student  provide  material  and  make  not  less  than  six  grafts. 

Ex.    36.      Budding.      (Demonstration.) 

The  teacher  will  do  the  work,  making  all  necessary  explanations. 

Ex.   37.      Budding.* 

Each  student  bud  a  definite  number  of  plants  in  the  school  garden 
or  home  orchard. 


*  If  possible,  students  should  do  considerable    grafting    and    budding    at 
home,  or  elsewhere,  while  the  method  is  clear  in  their  minds. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 15 

Ex.    38.      Effects  of  Air  Upon  Seed  Germination  in  Soil. 

Into  each  of  two  fruit  jars  containing  rich  sandy  loam,  put  a  few 
seeds  of  wheat,  corn  and  beans.  Moisten  the  soil  in  both  jars,  screw 
the  top  on  one  tight,  being  sure  to  keep  the  rubber  band  in  place. 
Leave  the  other  open.  Set  both  in  a  warm  lighted  place  and  note  re- 
sults at  the  end  qf  one  week,  two  weeks,  three  weeks.  What  does  this 
experiment  teach? 

Ex.   39.      Relation  of  Light  to  Growth. 

Prepare  two  fruit  jars  as  in  Exercise  38.  Put  one  jar  in  a  closet 
or  dark  basement  to  exclude  the  light,  and  note  results.  Substitute 
for  the  fruit  jars  and  seeds  flower  pots  containing  growing  plants. 
Are. plants  attracted  by  the  light?  Plan  an  experiment  to  prove.  Why 
do  trees  grow  taller  when  planted  near  together  than  when  planted 
far-  apart  ? 

Ex.  40.      Relation  of  Temperature  to  Growth. 

Note. — The  work  will  vary  with  the  facilities  for  maintaining 
fixed  temperatures.  Try  to  germinate  seeds  and  grow  plants  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures.  Work  out  fairly  accurate  answers  to  such  ques- 
tions as  the  following :  What  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  corn 
will  germinate  ?  At  what  temperature  does  it  germinate  most  quick- 
ly? etc. 

Ex.  41.  Preparation  and  Properties  of  Oxygen.* 

Ex.   42.  Preparation   and   Properties    of   Hydrogen.* 

Ex.  43.  Preparation  and  Properties  of  Nitrogen.* 

Ex.  44.  Preparation  and  Properties  of  CO*.* 

Ex.  45.  Plant  Food. 


*  To  be  performed  by  teacher  before  the  class.   Pupils  should  observe  close- 
ly and  record  in  full. 


46 .    .1   UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

Fill  seven  four-inch  flower  pots  with  clean  sand.  Number  the  pots 
and  place  plant  food  in  each  as  follows: 

No.  1.     Nothing. 

No.  2.     Ten  grains  lime. 

No.  3.     Ten  grams  lime  and  one  gram  potassium  chloride. 

No.  4.     Ten  grams  lime  and  one  gram  acid  phosphate. 

No.  5.     Ten  grams  lime  and  one  gram  sodium  nitrate. 

No.  6.  Ten  grams  lime  ;m<l  <>nc  gram  each  of  the  compounds 
used  in  Nos.  3,  4,  5. 

No.  7.     About  one-half  pint  of  manure. 

Mix 'the  materials  in  each  pot,  then  plant  five  kernels  of  wheat  in 
each.     Record  the  growth  of  the  plants  from  day  to  day,  noting  dif- 
ferences in  color  and  amount  of  growth.     Let  the  plants  grow  until 
the  differences  are  clearly  apparent. 
Ex.   46.      Air-Derived  and  Soil-Derived  Elements. 

Select  a  dry  plant  or  a  piece  of  dry  wood.  Weigh  it  carefully. 
Now  burn  it  and  weigh  the  ashes.  What  per  cent  of  the  plant  burned  ? 
This  method  gives  a  fair  approximation  of  the  amount  of  materials 
derived  from  the  air  and  amount  of  materials  derived  from  the  soil. 
Review  the  following  questions: 

Will  any  seed  germinate  in  a  perfectly  dry  soil?  Will  any  plant 
grow  without  some  moisture  ?  Why  is  there  so  little  vegetation  in  the 
desert?  What  is  a  desert?  What  is  meant  by  a  drouth?  What 
would  be  the  effects  on  this  country  of  a  total  cessation  of  rainfall? 

Ex.   47.      Bacteria  and  Molds. 

Material :  three  test  tubes,  cotton,  boiled  potato,  fruit  or  apple 
sauce,  three  apples,  one  partly  decayed. 

Fill  each  tube  about  one-third  full  of  apple  sauce.  Plug  each 
with  cotton.  Set  one  aside.  Put  the  other  two  into  a  pail  of  water 
and  boil  for  half  an  hour.  After  boiling,  set  one  tube  aside  with  the 
cotton  undisturbed.  Take  the  cotton  from  the  third  tube,  leave  it 
out  half  an  hour  or  more,  and  then  put  it  in  again.  Leave  these  for 
a  few  days,  note  what  happens  and  account  for  different  results.  Is 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 47 

it  desirable  to  leave  canned  fruit  open  a  few  minutes  before  covering 
after  cooking?  Why? 

Prick  one  of  the  sound  apples  in  several  places  with  a  pin.  Put 
the  pin  into  the  rotten  apple  and  then  into  the  other  sound  apple. 
Repeat  this  in  several  places.  Set  the  two  sound  apples  aside  for 
about  a  week.  Note  what  happens  and  account  for  the  different 
results. 

What  is  pasteurization,  and  how  may  it  be  performed  at  home? 
Why  discard  the  first  few  streams  of  "foremilk  ?"  Why  not  feed  just 
before  milking?  Explain  sour  bread  and  formation  of  vinegar  from 
cider.  What  principle  is  employed  in  preserving  silage? 

Ex.   48.      Preparation  of  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Material :  copper  sulphate,  lime,  potassium  ferrocyanid,  balances, 
two  Mason  fruit  jars  (quart  size). 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  prepared  by  using  2  to  6  pounds  of  copper 
sulphate  to  50  gallons  of  water  and  adding  enough  lime  to  neutralize 
it.  Four  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water  is  a  good  formula  for  use  on 
many  plants. 

(a)  Put  five  cents'  worth  of  potassium  ferrocyanid  into  a  4-ounce 
bottle  of  water  and  label  it  "poison."  (b)  Dissolve  2  ounces  of  cop- 
per sulphate  in  a  pint  of  water,  (c)  Slake  about  4  ounces  of  lime. 
Put  3  fluid  ounces  of  (b)  into  each  of  the  two  jars.  Fill  the  second 
jar  nearly  full  of  water.  Add  some  of  (c)  to  each  jar  and  test  with 
(a).  If  there  is  enough  lime  to  neutralize  the  copper  sulphate,  (a) 
will  retain  its  yellow  color  when  a  drop  of  it  is  added.  If  there  is 
not  enough  lime,  it  will  assume  a  decided  brown  red  color.  Add  (c) 
until  the  test  is  satisfied.  Then  add  as  much  more.  Now  fill  each 
jar  with  water.  In  which  case  does  the  mixture  settle  more  quickly 
and  what  is  its  color?  These  proportions  give  a  mixture  at  the  rate 
of  4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  to  50  gallons  of  water.  It  is  usually 
best  to  use  double  the  lime  called  for  by  the  test,  because  there  is  then 
less  danger  of  injuring  the  plants  sprayed.  Note  that  the  mixture 
containing  the  copper  sulphate  solution  diluted  before  adding  lime 


48 A  US  IT  L\  AGRICULTURE 

•  lid  not  settle  as  quickly  as  the  other.  Tin-  e<>|»]>er  sulphate  should 
always  IK-  diluted  with  nearly  all  the  water  l>el'nre  tin-  lime  is  added. 
Some  bulletins  state  that  h<»th  should  he  diluted  and  then  nut  to- 
gether, but  this  way  is  quite  as  good  and  is  easier. 

Ex.    49.       Insect  Net. 

Material :  a  handle  about  three  feet  long  (an  old  broom  stick 
will  do),  a  piece  of  No.  3  galvanized  wire  three  feet  six  inches  long, 
and  three-fourths  of  a  yard  of  cheese  cloth. 

Bend  the  wire  into  a  ring  about  a  foot  in  diameter  and  bend  back 
about  three  inches  of  each  end  to  insert  into  a  hole  made  in  the  end 
of  the  handle.  Fasten  securely.  Make  the  cheese  cloth  into  a  bag 
with  rounded  bottom  and  just  wido  enough  to  fit  the  wire  loop;  fasten 
sen  i  rely. 

Ex.   50.      Killing  Bottle. 

Take  any  small,  wide-mouthed  bottle — a  quinine  bottle  or  pickle 
bottle  will  do.  Secure  a  cork  that  will  fit  the  bottle  closely,  and  that 
is  long  enough  to  handle  easily.  Get  two  cents'  worth  of  cyanide  of 
potassium,  and  one  cent's  worth  of  plaster  of  Paris.  Put  the  cyanide 
in  the  bottle,  cover  with  water  and  add  the  plaster  of  Paris  until 
all  the  water  is  soaked  up.  Leave  the  bottle  open  in  a  shady  place 
for  an  hour,  when  the  plaster  should  be  hard.  Cork  the  bottle  and 
label  it  poison.  Now  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Caution. — Do  not  breathe  the  fumes  of  the  bottle. 

Ex.   51.      Insect  Box. 

Secure  an  empty  cigar  box.  Cover  the  bottom  with  some  soft  ma- 
terial as  cork,  cork  linoleum  or  pith  of  dried  corn  stalks.  Fasten 
this  material  to  the  bottom  of  the  box  with  .glue  and  cover  with 
white  paper. 

If  your  collection  is  to  be  a  permanent  one,  make  a  glass  cover 
for  the  box  and  fit  it  air  tight. 

Ex.    52.      Spreading  Board. 

The  spreading  board  may  be  any  length.  Material:  two  strips  of 
soft  wood,  11/-J  inches  wide  and  l/2  inch  thick;  one  piece  3*4  inches 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 49 

wide,  I/*  inch  thick;  two  cleats  3^  inches  wide  by  %  inch  by  Vu 
inch;  one  strip  of  cork  linoleum  a  little  less  than  1  inch  wide  and 
as  long  as  the  longest  strips. 

Place  the  two  narrow  cleats  i/2  inch  apart  and  fasten  on  the 
under  side  to  the  longer  cleats.  On  the  same  side  as  the  cleats,  tack 
the  cork  or  linoleum  over  the  open  space.  Now  tack  the  whole  to  the 
bottom  board,  which  should  fit  exactly. 

Ex.    53.      Killing  and  Mounting  Insects. 

Immediately  after  having  caught  the  insect,  put  it  in  the  killing 
bottle  and  cork  tightly. 

For  mounting  all  insects  except  the  butterfly  and  moth  use  the 
insect  box.  Stick  a  steel  pin  (a  sewing  needle  is  better)  through  the 
insect  so  that  the  insect  is  about  */2  an  inch  from  the  point.  Now 
stick  the  needle  about  14  inch  into  the  cork  at  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

Write  the  name  of  the  insect  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  and  fasten 
near  the  pin. 

To  use  the  spreading  board,  do  as  follows : 

Kill  the  moth  or  butterfly  as  before,  and  mount  within  half  an 
hour.  Insert  the  pin,  with  the  insect  on  it,  into  the  cork  just  far 
enough  so  the  body  of  the  insect  will  be  in  the  space  between  the 
boards  up  to  the  wings.  Place  the  wings  out  flat  on  the  board  and 
fasten  them  with  narrow  strips  of  paper  held  by  pins.  Arrange  the 
wings  so  that  the  rear  margins  of  the  front  wings  will  just  cover  the 
front  margins  of  the  rear  wings  and  shall  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
body.  Now  pin  larger  pieces  of  paper  so  as  to  hold  all  firmly  until 
dry. 

Ex.   54.     Study  of  Cuts  of  Beef. 

Study  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  71.  Copy  drawing  of  ox  showing 
different  cuts  of  beef. 

Ex.  55.     Study  of  the  Egg. 

Each  student  should  be  provided  with  two  hen's  eggs.  With  the 
ends  of  the  egg  in  the  hollow  of  the  hands,  press  firmly.  Account 


50 A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

for  the  j,'iv:it  siivn^th  <»f  the  shell.     Hre;ik  ;i  fn-sh  uncooked  egg  in  a 
saucer  or  plate  by  separating  the  shell  in  the  middle.    Observe: 

1.  The  germinal  disc  (a  light  colored  spot  usually  found  on  the 

upper  surface  of  the  yolk).  •  What  is  the  function  of  this 
part? 

2.  The  transparent  albumen  or  white  of  the  egg. 

Examine  the  shell  and  find  the  air  space.  Where  is  the  air  space  ? 
Of  what  use  is  it?  Observe  the  two  membranes  best  seen  at  the  air 
space  where  they  separate. 

Examine  a  piece  of  the  shell  with  the  microscope,  and  observe  the 
pores.  What  would  be  the  effect  on  the  chick  while  in  the  egg  if  the 
shell  were  covered  with  varnish? 

Note  the  color  of  the  egg.  Ascertain  whether  the  eggs  from  any 
particular  hen  are  all  of  the  same  color. 

Boil  the  egg  and  carefully  cut  lengthwise  through  the  middle.  Ob- 
serve all  closely  and  make  drawing. of  either  half,  showing  and  naming 
all  parts.  Make  an  exact  drawing,  omitting  nothing.  Use  colored 
crayon,  if  convenient. 

Ex.   56.      Poultry  House. 

Read  Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  225,  227.  Make  drawings  accord- 
ing to  scale  of  (a)  floor  plans:  (b)  cross  section  of  poultry  house  for 
a  given  number  of  chickens. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


51 


Ex.    57.      Judging  of  Draft  Horse  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given  below,  observe  a  draft  horse  and 
record  your  observations.  (The  score  cards  in  this  manual  are  those  used  by 
the  students  in  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Missouri.) 


Pos- 

Points 

Deficient 

SCALE    OF   POINTS 

sible 
Score 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Age,  estimated  yrs.,   actual  yrs. 
(JKNKKAI,  APl'EARANCE—  24   Points 
Height,  estimated  hands;  actual  hands. 

AVeigrht,    over    1600    Ibs.     in    good    condition;     estimated 
Ibs.  ,  score  according  to  age  

4 

Form,  broad,   massive,  symmetrical,  blocky  

4 

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  large  strong;  tendons  clean, 
defined,    prominent;    skin   and   hair   fine;    "feather,"    if 
present,    silky    

4 

Action,    energetic,    straight,    true,    elastic;    walk,    stride 
long,  quick,   regular;   trot,   free   balanced,   rapid  

10 

Temperament,  energetic;  disposition  good  

2 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  Points 
Head,  proportionate  size,  clean  cut,  well  carried;  profile, 
straight    

1 

Muzzle,    neat;    nostrils    large,    flexible;    lips    thin,    even, 
firm    

1 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color  

1 

Forehead,   broad,   full  

1 

Ears,  medium  size;  tapering,  well  carried,  alert  

1 

1 

Neck,    medium    length,  "well    muscled,    arched;    throat- 

2 

FOREQUARTERS  —  25  Points 

Shoulders,  moderate   height,   extending  well   back,   mod- 
erately   sloping,    heavily    and    smoothly    muscled,    ex- 

3 

Arms,  short,  heavily  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set.... 

1 

Forearm,   long,   wide,   clean,   heavily  muscled  

Knees,    straight,    wide,    deep,    strong,    clean,    well    sup- 
ported      

o 

Cannons,    short,    wide,    clean;    tendons    large,    clean    and 
well  defined,  set  back  

_ 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  

1 

Pasterns,  moderate  slope  and  length,  strong,   clean  

3 

Feet,   large,    even   size,    sound;    horn    dense,    waxy;    soles 
concave;    bars   strong,    full;    frog    large,    elastic;    heels 

8 

Legs,    viewed    in    front,    a    perpendicular    line    from    the 
point   of   the  shoulder   should   fall    upon    the   center   of 
the  knee,   cannon,  pastern   and   foot;    from   the  side,   a 
perpendicular    line    dropping    from    the    center    of    the 
elbow   joint   should   fall    upon   the   center   of   the   knee 
and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof  

3 

.1   UNIT  1\  AGRICULTURE* 


Ex.    57.      Judging  of  Draft  Horses  by  Score  Card   (continued). 


SCALE    OF   POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Stu- 
ili-ntH 
Score 

<•,„. 
Score 

BODY—  10   Points 

UilluTH,  moderate  height,  smooth,  extending  well   back. 

1 
2 

2 

l.oin,    broad,    short,    heavily   muscled  

2 
1 

2 

II  IMx(i    \i;  l  l  i;x  —  33   Points 
1  1  ii»,  broad,  smooth,  level  

Croup,  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  droop- 

Tail,  attached  high    well  carried      .                 

1 

2 

Stifles,  clean,  strong,  muscular  

2 
2 
6 

2 
1 
2 

0 

Gaftking   (lower  thighs),  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled.... 

Cannons,   short,    wide,    clean;    tendons   large,    clean,    de- 

Feet,  large,  even  size,   sound;  horn  dense,   waxy;   soles, 
concave,  bars,  strong,  full;   frog,   large,  elastic;   heels. 

l.egrn,   view   from   behind,   a  perpendicular  line  from   the 
point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  cannon  and  foot;  from  the  side  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskln   in   the  middle;   and  a 
perpendicular    line    from     the    point    of    the     buttock 

3 

TotrU    

100 

Animal Date.  . .  . 

Student Standing . 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


53 


Ex.    58.      Judging  of  Light  Horses  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given  below,  observe  a  light  horse  and 
your  observations. 


SCALE    OF    POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Age,  estimated  yrs.,  actual  yrs. 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  28  Points 
Weight,  estimated  Ibs.  ;  actual  Ibs. 

Height,  estimated  hands  ;  actual  hands 
Form,  symmetrical     smooth,   stylish  

2 
4 
4 
15 

Quality,  refined;  bone  clean,  fine;  tendons  clean,  defined; 

Action,    energetic,    straight,    true,    elastic;    walk,    stride 
long,   quick,   regular;   trot,   free,   balanced,   rapid  

Temperament,  active;  disposition  good,  stylish  carriage. 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  g  Points 
Head,  proportionate  size,  clean  cut,  well  carried,   profile 
straight    

3 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
2 

3 
1 
2 

2 
2 
1 
3 

6 
3 

Muzzle,  neat;  nostrils  large,  flexible;  lips  thin,  even,  firm 

Ears,  medium  size,   tapering,  well  carried,   alert  

Lower  Jaw,  angles  medium  wide,   space  clean  
Neck,    long,     well    muscled,     arched;     throat-latch     fine, 

FOREQUARTERS  —  20  Points 
Shoulder,    long,     sloping,    smoothly    muscled,    extending 

Arms,  short,  strongly  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set... 

Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,   clean,  strongly  sup- 

Cannons,    short,    wide,    clean,    tendons    large,    clean,    de- 

Feet,   medium"  and  even  size,   sound,   horn   dense,   waxy; 
soles   concave;    bars   strong,    full;    frog   large,    elastic; 

Legs,  view  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of    the    shoulder    should    fall    upon    the    center    of    the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot;   from  the  side,  a  per- 
pendicular line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow 
joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pas- 
tern  loints  and   back   of  hoof.  .  

A  UMT  IS  AGRICULTURE 


Ex.   58.      Judging  of  Light  Horses  by  Score  Card  (continued). 


Pos- 

Points 1 

deficient 

SCALE    OF   POINTS 

sible 
Score 

Stu- 

'dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

BODY—  10  Points 
Withers,  moderate  height,  smooth,  extending  well  back. 

1 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  breast  bone  low;  girth  large  

2 

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip  

2 

Itack,  broad,  short,  strong,  muscular  

o 

I.olnx,   broad,   short,   wide,   strongly  and  smoothly   mus- 

l  ndrrlinr,  long,  low;  flanks  well  let  down  

1 

HINIHJl  AKTEKH  —  31   PoInU 
Hips,   broad,   smooth,   level  

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular,  not  markedly  drooping.  .  .  . 

2 

Tall,  attached  high,  well  carried  

1 

1 

Stifles,  strong    clean,    muscular  

tiasklns  (lower  thighs),  'long,  wide,  strongly  muscled... 

2 

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean  

Cannons,   short,    wide,   clean;    tendons   large,    clean   and 

2 

Fetlocks,  wide    straight,   strong,   clean  

1 

Pasterns,  long,  sloping,  strong,  clean  

3 

Feet,  medium  and  even  size,  sound;   horn  dense,  waxy; 
soles   concave;    bars   strong,    full;    frog   large,    elastic; 
heels  wide,  strongly  supported  

4 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  cannon  and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular 
line   from   the  hip  joints  should   fall   upon   the   center 
of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskln   in   the  middle;   and 
a  perpendicular   line   from    the    point   of   the    buttock 
should  run  parallel  with  the  lines  of  the  cannon  

3 

Total     

100 

Disqualifications 


Animal Date 

Student Standing . 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


55 


Ex.    59.      Judging  of  Beef  Cattle  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given  below,  observe  a  beef  steer  and 
record  your  observations. 


Pos- 

Points 

Deficient 

SCALE    OF   POINTS 

sible 
Score 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Age,  estimated  yrs.,   actual  yrs. 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  26  Points 
Weight,  estimated  ibs.,  actual  Ibs.,   score 

G 

Form,  straight  top  line  and  underline;  deep,  broad,   low, 
medium      length,      symmetrical,      compact,      standing 

g 

Quality,  bone  of  firm  texture,  fine  skin,  silky  hair,  clear- 

G 

Condition,   thick,   even   covering  of   firm   flesh,   especially 
in   regions  of  valuable  cuts;  indicating  finish;   light  in 
offal     

G 

HEAD  AND  NECK—  8  Points 
Muzzle,    good    size,    lips    thin,    nostrils    large    and    well 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Ears,   well   carried,    fine,    medium   size  

1 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  clean;   dewlap  slight  

3 

FOREQl'ARTERS  —  12  Points 
Shoulder  Vein,  smooth,   full   

Shoulders,  smoothly  covered  with  firm  flesh,  compact... 

Brisket,  broad    full     breast  wide  

Legs,   straight,    short,    strong,    wide   apart,   forearm   full, 

2 

BODY  —  32   Points 
Chest,  deep,  broad,  girth  large,  foreflank  full  

4 

Crops,  full,  thick,  even  with  shoulders  

5 

Back,   broad,    straight,    medium    length;    thickly,    evenly 

7 

Ribs,  deep,   well  sprung,  closely  set,   thickly,   evenly  and 

7 

Loin,  broad,  straight,  thickly,  evenly  and  firmly  fleshed. 

7 

Flanks,    full,    low  

2 

A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Ex.    59.      Judging  of  Beef  Cattle  by  Score  Card  (continued). 


Pos- 

Points I 

Deficient 

SCALE    OF    POINTS 

sible 
Score 

Stu- 

il.-IItH 

Score 

Cor- 

r.  '  ii-il 
Score 

IllMXJt  ARTKKS—  22   1'olntn 

3 

Kump,    long,    level,    width    well    carried    back;    thickly, 

r 

Pm  Bones,  wide  apart,  not  prominent  

1 

1 

Thighs,  deep    wide,  well   fleshed  

4 

Twist,  deep    broad    well  filled  

6 

2 

Total    

100 

Disqualifications 


Animal Date 

Student Standing . 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


57 


Ex.   60.      Judging  of  Dairy  Cattle  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given  below,  observe  a  dairy  cow  and 
record  your  observations. 


Pos- 

Points 1 

Deficient 

SCALE    OF    POINTS 

sible 
Score 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Age,  estimated  yrs.,  actual  yrs. 

GENERAL   APPEARANCE—  23  Points 

Weight,  estimated  Ibs.,   actual  Ibs. 

3 

Form,    deep,    low,    wedge    shape    as    viewed    from    front, 
side  and  top;  standing  squarely  on   legs  

5 

Quality,  bone  of  firm   texture;   hair  fine,   soft;   skin   mel- 
low, loose,  medium  thickness;  secretion  yellow  

5 

3 

Style,  active,  graceful  carriage  

2 

Temperament,  alert,  tractable;  highly  developed  nervous 
system   perfectly   controlled,    indicated   by   clear  placid 
eyes,    marked   refinement   about   head,    neck   and    fore- 

5 

III;  \l)  AND  NECK—  10  Points 
Muzzle,  good  size,  lips  thin,  nostril  large  and  wide  apart, 

2 

1 

o 

1 

1 

3 

FOREQUARTERS—  0   Points 

3 

Brisket    light                                        

1 

2 

BODY—  22  Points 

3 

4 

4 

3 

8 

> 

58 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Ex.    60.      Judging  of  Dairy  Cattle  by  Score  Card   (continued). 


Pos- 

Points ] 

)i'liri,-|,t 

SCALE    OF   POINTS 

sible 

Boon 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

HIMXJl  AKTKKS  —  39  Point  H 

2 

Kump,    long,    wide,    straight    or    slightly    rising;    pelvis 

3 

1 

1 

3 

KsmiHn'011,  spreading  over  thighs,  extending  high  and 

1 

L'dder,  broad,  symmetrical,  extending  well  forward,  well 
up  between  the  thighs,  free  from  fleshiness,  well  held 

18 

4 

Milk  Veins,  large,  tortuous,  branching  milk  wells  large, 

4 

Tolaf      

100 

Disqualified  t  ions 


Animal Date 

Student Standing . 


A  UNIT  IN' AGRICULTURE 


59 


Ex.    61.      Judging  of  Mutton  Sheep  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given   below,  observe  a  mutton  sheep 
and  record  your  observations. 


SCALE    OF    POINTS 

Pos- 
sible 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Stu- 
dents 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Age    estimated   yrs.,  actual  yrs. 

0 

8 

c 

G 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  20  Points 
Weight,  estimated  Ibs.,   actual  Ibs. 

Form,  straight,  top  line  and  underline,  deep,  broad,  low, 
medium      length,      symmetrical,      compact,      standing 

Quality,    bone    of    firm     texture,     fine    skin,     silky    hair, 
clearly     denned    features    and    joints,     mellow     touch, 

Condition,  thick,  even,  covering  of  firm   flesh,   especially 
in   regions  of  valuable  cuts,   indicating  finish;    light   in 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  Points 
Muzzle,    good    size,    lips    thin,    nostrils    large    and    well 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
3 

2 
4 
2 
2 

4 
7 
G 
G 
2 

3 

Face,  short,  broad,  profile  straight  

FOREQUARTERS  —  10  Points 

Shoulders,  smoothly  covered  with  firm  flesh;  compact... 

Legs,  straight,   short,   strong,    wide   apart;    forearm   full; 

BODY—  25  Points 

Back,    broad,    straight,    medium    length,    thickly,    evenly 

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,   closely  set,   thickly,   evenly  and 

Loin,  broad,  straight,  thickly,  evenly  and  firmly  fleshed. 
Flanks,   full     low                                              .                  

HINDQUARTERS  —  20  Points 

Rump,    long,    level,    width    well    carried    back;    thickly. 

4 
C 
2 

Twist,  deep    broad    well   tilled                                               ...    . 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  short  but  sound.... 

GO 


.•1  US  IT  /.\   AGRICULTURE 


Ex.    61.      Judging  of  Mutton  Sheep  by  Score  Card   (continued). 


Pos- 

Points 1 

deficient 

SCALE   OF   POINTS 

sible 

.•-•.  ..i  | 

Stu- 

lIl-lllB 

Score 

I'.ir- 

1  .  I'll'll 
Score 

FKKKfK  AM)  SKIN—  11   Point  N 
Quantity    of    Wool,    long,    dense,    even,    well    distributed 

3 

Quality  of  Wool,  fine,  soft,  pure,  even,  crimp  close  and 

3 

2 

.skin,  pink  color,  clear.  .  .'  !  '  

3 

Total    .    .                         .                      

100 

. 

Disqualifications 


Animal Daic 

Student Standing . 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 


61 


Ex.    62.      Judging  of  Swine  by  Score  Card. 

In  accordance  with  the  score  card  given  below,  observe  swine  of  different 
breeds  and  record  your  observations. 


SCALE    OF    POINTS 


Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points  DcflcA-nt 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Age,   estimated yrs.,   actual yrs. 

GENERAL.  APPEARANCE— 26   Points 

Weight   estimated Ibs.,    actual Ibs., 

score  according  to  age 

Form,  arched  back,  straight  underline;  deep,  broad,  low, 

medium      length,      symmetrical,      compact,      standing 

squarely  on   legs 

Quality,    bone    of    firm     texture,     fine    skin,     silky    hair, 

clearly  defined  features  and  joints;  mellow  touch 

Condition,   thick,  even,   covering  of  firm   flesh,   especially 

In   regions  of  valuable  cuts;   indicating  finish;   light  in 

offal 

HEAD  AND  NKCK— 8  Points 

Snout ,   short,    not   coarse 

Face,  short,  broad,  cheeks  full 

Eyes,  large,  full,  clear,  bright,   wide  apart,  not  obscured 

by    wrinkles 

Forehead,  broad   

Ears,  well  carried,  fine,  medium  size 

Jowl,  full,  firm,  broad,  neat 

Nes  k,    thick,    medium    length,    somewhat   arched,    neatly 

joined   to  shoulders 

FOREQl'ARTERS — 10  Points 

Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  full,  compact,  covered  with  firm 

flesh 

Breast,  wide,  deep,  breast  bone  advanced 

Legs,   straight,   short,    strong,   wide  apart,    shank   strong 

and  smooth,  feet  sound 

BODY — 33  Points 

Chest,  deep,  broad,  girth  large,  foreflank  full 

Back,    broad,    slightly    arched,    medium    length,    thickly, 

evenly    and    firmly    fleshed 

Sides,    deep,     medium     length,     closely     ribbed,     thickly, 

evenly  and  firmly  fleshed 

Loins,    broad,    strong,    medium    length,     thickly,    evenly 

and  firmly  fleshed 

Belly,  straight,  proportionate  width,  firmly  fleshed 

Flanks,    full,    low 

HINDQUARTERS — 23  Points 

Hips,   smoothly  covered,   proportionate   width 

Rump,  long,  rounding  slightly,  from  loin  to  root  of  tail; 

width    well    carried    back,    thickly,    evenly   and    firmly 

fleshed    

Hams,  deep,  wide,  thickly,  evenly  and  firmly  fleshed.... 
Legs,  straight,   short,   strong;  shank  strong  and  smooth, 

feet  sound  


8 

10 


Total 


Disqualifications 


Animal Date 

Student Standing . 


62  A  UX1T  IN  AGRICULTURE 

FARM  MANAGEMENT. 
Ex.    63.      Plan  of  Farm. 

Take  the  measurements  of  the  home  farm.    Make  plot  of  farm; 
scale,  one  inch-=660  feet.     Show    location    of    cultivated    fields, 
pastures,  timber,  barn  lot,  orchard  and  garden.     Show  location  of  all 
buildings  and  all  wells,  ponds,  or  springs. 
Ex.   64.      Plan  of  Home. 

Measure  and  make  to  scale  a  floor  plan  and  cross  section  of  your 
home.  If  you  can,  make  a  good  drawing  of  the  home. 

Ex.    65.      Plan  of  Bam. 

Having  read  the  references  assigned  by  the  teacher  and  knowing 
the  kind  and  number  of  animals  to  be  provided  for,  make  ground  plan 
of  barn ;  scale,  one  inch  =  6  feet. 

Ex.    66.      Examination  of  Fertilizers. 

Study  small  samples  of  all  fertilizers  available.  Test  each  with 
litmus  paper.  Learn  name,  composition  and  price  of  each.  Observe 
color,  odor  and  form. 

Ex.  67.      Experimental  Test  of  Fertilizers. 

This  experiment  takes  time  and  can  not  be  completed  before  Sep- 
tember. If  there  is  no  school  garden,  ask  some  farmer  in  the  neigh- 
borhood to  rent  you  the  necessary  land.  Lay  off  one-half  acre  of  land 
in  plots,  each  plot  being  precisely  one-tenth  of  the  whole,  or  one- 
twentieth  of  an  acre.  Mark  the  division  points  by  stakes  set  well  in 
the  ground  and  number  the  plots  from  one  to  ten. 

On  plot  No.  1,  sow  nothing. 

On  plot  No.  2,  8  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  16  Ibs.  of  acid  phos- 
phate. 

On  plot  No.  3,  8  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  4  Ibs.  of  muriate  of 
potash. 

On  plot  No.  4,  8  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda,  16  Ibs.  of  acid  phosphate 
and  4  Ibs.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

On  plot  No.  5,  20  Ibs.  of  any  commercial  fertilizer  used  in  the 
neighborhood. 

On  plot  No.  6,  nothing. 

On  plot  Xo.  7,  500  Ibs.  of  barnyard  manure. 


A  UNIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 63 

On  plot  No.  8,  8  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

On  plot  No.  9,  16  Ibs.  of  acid  phosphate. 

On  plot  No.  10,  4  Ibs.  of  muriate  of  potash. 

Do  this  work  in  early  spring.  Plant  the  entire  plot  in  corn  or 
potatoes  and  cultivate  carefully.  In  the  fall,  gather  and  weigh  the 
crop.  Which  plot  made  the  best  yield?  Which  made  the  poorest? 
Arrange  the  plots  according  to  the  yield.  Considering  the  market 
price  of  the  corn  or  potatoes,  did  it  pay  to  fertilize?  Which  plot 
shows  the  highest  per  cent  of  profit? 

Ex.   68.      The  Home  Garden. 

Make  drawing  of  plan  for  a  vegetable  garden  to  supply  the  home 

with  a  succession  of  vegetables.  Indicate  the  area  planted  to  differ- 
ent vegetables,  the  approximate  time  of  planting,  distance  between 
rows,  method  of  planting  and  cultivating. 

Note. — It  is  important  that  the  garden  be  arranged  for  cultiva- 
tion by  horse  power. 

Ex.   69.      Farm  Forestry. 

Visit  the  woods  on  a  farm.     Find  out  what  trees  the  method  of 

cutting  has  favored,  and  what  are  the  leading  kinds,  with  the  pro- 
portion of  each.  Learn  the  names  of  the  common  trees.  Note  that 
much  of  the  cutting  in  woods  is  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the 
undesirable  trees — the  tree  weeds. 

Ex.   70.      Agricultural  Manufacturing. 

Visit  a  creamery,  vinegar  factory,  evaporator,  canning  factory  or 
other  similar  industry.    Note  the  different  operations  and  refer  to  the 
scientific  principles  involved. 
Ex.   71.      The  Babcock  Test  for  Butter-Fat  in  Milk. 

This  exercise  should  first  be  performed  by  the  teacher  as  a  demon- 
stration exercise  and  then  by  the  individual  students. 

Caution. — Examine  the  apparatus  and  read  the  directions  care- 
fully before  using  it.  When  pouring  the  acid  into  the  milk,  be  sure 
that  the  bottle  is  not  pointed  toward  yourself  or  any  other  person. 

Mix  the  milk  by  pouring  it  back  and  forth  between  two  vessels 
several  times.  Place  the  small  end  of  the  pipette  near  the  center  of 


64 A  UXIT  IN  AGRICULTURE 

the  milk  and  suck  up  the  milk  above  the  17.6  c.c.  mark.  Quickly  put 
the  index  finger  over  the  upper  end  of  the  pipette;  and,  by  releasing 
the  pressure,  allow  the  milk  to  run  out  until  its  upper  surface  is  even 
with  17.6  c.c.  mark  when  the  pipette  is  held  straight  up  and  down. 

Place  the  point  of  the  pipette  a  short  distance  into  the  test-bottle 
neck,  holding  it  against  the  glass  and  with  both  pipette  and  bottle  at 
an  angle.  Remove  the  finger  to  allow  the  milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle. 
Be  sure  to  get  every  drop  of  the  milk,  taking  care  to  drain  the  pipette 
and  to  blow  the  last  drop  into  the  bottle. 

After  all  the  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested  have  been  measured, 
the  acid  should  be  added.  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  17.5  c.c.  mark 
with  acid  that  is  neither  very  cold  nor  very  hot.  Pour  this  into  the 
bottle  with  the  milk,  holding  the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position.  The 
acid  will  then  carry  down  any  milk  left  in  the  neck,  follow  the  glass 
surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  form  a  layer  under  the  milk. 

Hold  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  give  it  a  circular  motion  for  a 
few  minutes,  mixing  the  milk  and  acid  until  no  milk  or  clear  acid  is 
visible.  By  this  time  the  contents  will  be  dark  colored  and  hot.  This 
change  is  due  to  the  acid  dissolving  all  the  solid  constituents  of  the 
milk  except  the  fat,  which  it  does  not  affect. 

Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine  so  that  each  one  will  have  an- 
other directly  opposite,  to  keep  the  machine  in  balance.  Whirl  the 
bottles  five  minutes  at  the  proper  speed  for  the  machine  in  use.  Then 
stop  it;  and,  with  the  pipette  or  other  convenient  means,  add  hot 
water  to  each  bottle  until  the  contents  come  up  to  the  bottom  of  the 
neck.  Whirl  two  minutes.  Add  hot  water  enough  to  bring  the  top  of 
the  fat  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  graduations  on  the  neck  of  the  bottles. 
Whirl  one  minute.  The  fat  should  then  form  a  clear  column  in  the 
neck  of  the  bottle. 

Reading  iJie  Percentage.  Keep  the  fat  warm  so  that  it  will  be 
in  the  fluid  condition.  Hold  the  bottle  by  the  upper  end  of  the  neck, 
letting  it  hang  in  a  perpendicular  position  on  the  level  with  the  eye. 
Read  the  graduations  at  the  extreme  top  and  bottom  of  the  fat  column. 
The  difference  between  these  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA.  LOS  ANGELES 

THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

IPR  1  8  1991  f 


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in 


r  OF 

'.LBS 


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A  unit  in  a 
culture. 


APR  1 


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—  ""_•"••     i  in  1 1  ii  i ii 
001  107  511     6 


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